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# Port Economics, Management and Policy

A comprehensive analysis of the port industry

## Sitemaps

- [XML Sitemap](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/sitemap.xml): Contains all public & indexable URLs for this website.

## Posts

- [Latest Posts](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/latest-posts/)
- [Main Physical Elements of a Port (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/main-physical-elements-of-a-port-new-page/) - A generic representation of the main physical elements of a contemporary port. Helpful when introducing port infrastructure to an audience. Main Physical Elements of a Port | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Global cruise passengers carried (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/global-cruise-passengers-carried-update/) - 2020 cruise passengers figures underline the sharp impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on cruises. The industry lost more than 20 million passengers between 2019 and 2020 (from 27.5 million to 7 million). Since then, the recovery has been impressive: 31.7 million passengers cruised in 2023, and forecasts estimate the reach of 40 million cruise passengers
- [Maritime Zones and Legal Boundaries (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/maritime-zones-and-legal-boundaries-new-page/) - Maritime zones and their jurisdiction are well covered in maritime law, particularly over the issue of territorial sea and exclusive economic zones. A new page provides a synthetic representation of the main maritime zones and their implications for ports. Maritime Zones and Legal Boundaries | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Main sources of cyberattacks (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/main-sources-of-cyberattacks-new/) - Added a page describing the main sources of cyberattacks, including those that can impact the maritime and port industry. Financial gain remains one of the core drivers, but activism may use cyberattacks to disrupt operations and damage the reputation of the organization. Main Sources of Cyberattacks | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [New Chapter about Ports and the Circular Economy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/new-chapter-about-ports-and-the-circular-economy/) - The Ports and the Circular Economy chapter is the latest addition to Port Economics, Management, and Policy. It is a collaboration between the main authors of the textbook: Theo Notteboom, Thanos Pallis, and Jean-Paul Rodrigue. The main issues covered include: The potential and the role of ports in circular economy implementation. The impacts of the
- [Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/amazon-inbound-cross-dock-facilities-network-new-page/) - Major online retailers, such as Amazon, have replicated and adapted the inbound cross-docking facilities developed by conventional retailers in the 1990s to transload containers into domestic loads. Such facilities have pronounced port-centric locations. In the United States, more than 61% of the footprint of the inbound cross-docking facilities developed by Amazon are on the East
- [American Foreign Trade by Maritime Containers, 2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/american-foreign-trade-by-maritime-containers-2021/) - Considering the potential strike of dockworkers at US East and Gulf Coast ports, it is worth having a look at the composition of containerized imports and exports. They involve substantially different supply chains, implying that containerized imports (mainly retail goods) have little to do with the composition of exports (mainly commodities). American Foreign Trade by
- [Bunker Fuel Sales at the Port of Singapore (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/bunker-fuel-sales-at-the-port-of-singapore/) - An overview of bunker fuel sales in the world's largest bunkering port, Singapore, indicates a substantial change in the market in 2020, when restrictions limiting the sulfur content of bunker fuels shifted from 3.5% to 0.5%. This global implementation has been phased in since 2010 and became active in 2020. This led to a switch to fuels
- [Ship Capacity Measures (New page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/ship-capacity-measures-new-page/) - Added a new page explaining the basic ship capacity measures based on displacement (e.g. deadweight tonnage) and ship volume (e.g. gross and net tonnage). On occasion, these terms are confused with one another. An explanation is also provided for the unique TEU capacity measure for containerships. Ship Characteristics and Capacity Measures | Port Economics, Management
- [Chapter 2.6 – Ports and Energy Transition (new chapter)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/chapter-2-6-ports-and-energy-transition-new-chapter/) - A new draft chapter is now available. It covers the energy transition of ports, which have conventionally acted as energy transport, transformation, and generation platforms. With decarbonization, they are expected to play a greater role in future energy systems, but several challenges remain, including the electrification of port equipment and facilities. Chapter 2.6 – Ports
- [Fundamental Characteristics of the Maritime Industry (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/fundamental-characteristics-of-the-maritime-industry-new-page/) - Added a new page introducing the fundamental drivers of the maritime industry, simplified into six main categories. The maritime industry is mostly a tertiary sector built on the principle of derived demand. It is a capital-intensive industry relying on the interdependence of fixed and mobile assets for which the principle of economies of scale is
- [Elements of the Maritime Industry (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/elements-of-the-maritime-industry-new-page/) - An attempt at enumerating the main elements composing the maritime industry. It includes the shipping industry, such as carriers and shipowners; the port industry, such as port authorities and terminal operators; the management and oversight of cargo and ships; and ancillary activities, such as finance, insurance, and bunkering. Elements of the Maritime Industry | Port
- [Chapter about ports and green supply chains updated](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/chapter-about-ports-and-green-supply-chains-updated/) - The chapter covers the underlying green supply chain strategies, often referred to as green logistics, in which ports act as nexuses. Chapter 2.5 – Green Shipping, Ports and Supply Chain Management | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Impacts of the Baltimore Bridge Collapse on Access to Its Main Port Terminal Facilities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/impacts-of-the-baltimore-bridge-collapse-on-access-to-its-main-port-terminal-facilities/) - In light of the Baltimore bridge collapse and the blockage of the port access channel, a new entry in Chapter 6.4 (Port Resilience) was written. It analyzes the impacts of the blockage on port supply chains. Since this is an unfolding event, the material will be revised as new information becomes available. Impacts of the
- [The Digital Transformation of Ports (chapter update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-digital-transformation-of-ports-chapter-update/) - The chapter covering digital transformation issues has been updated with recent trends and developments, including digitalization, digital ledgers, and cybersecurity. Chapter 2.4 – The Digital Transformation of Ports | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Inland Ports (chapter update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/inland-ports-chapter-update/) - The Port Economics, Management and Policy chapter covering inland ports has been reviewed. A New Role for Inland Terminals. How inland terminals have played a growing role in hinterland transportation. Driving Forces. The main factors behind the development of inland ports. Functions within Transport Chains. The role they play is nodes within freight distribution systems.
- [Port Hinterlands, Regionalization and Corridors (chapter update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-hinterlands-regionalization-and-corridors-chapter-update/) - The Port Economics, Management and Policy chapter covering port hinterlands has been reviewed. It focuses on the multiple aspects of the relationships ports have with their inland market areas, including: The Hinterland Concept The Hinterland and the Maritime-Land Interface The Hinterland Focus of Market Players Port Regionalization Hinterland Accessibility Transport Corridors Cargo Bundling in Hinterland
- [Direct, Indirect and Induced Economic Effects of Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/direct-indirect-and-induced-economic-effects-of-ports/) - Ports can be catalysts for economic development through a series of effects. The direct benefits involve the revenues that accrue from port activity and arise from the various charges levied on ships and cargo for port use. The indirect benefits involve firms that import or export goods from the port, usually concerning its hinterland. The
- [The Changing Geography of Seaports (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-changing-geography-of-seaports-update/) - Ports are embedded in their geography, with location factors impacted by technical constraints such as the nautical profile, port users, inland transport networks, and maritime shipping networks. This revised chapter extensively discusses these topics, which underlines that ports are contingent on geographical constraints and changing commercial and technical aspects of maritime shipping, including containerization, automation,
- [The Seasonality of Container Port Activity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-seasonality-of-container-port-activity/) - The monthly distribution of the traffic of a sample of major container ports, which includes gateways and transshipment hubs, reveals noticeable fluctuations. January and February are the periods of lowest activity (8.0 and 7.3% of annual traffic activity, respectively), while August to October experience the highest throughput. In addition to the complexity of anticipating future
- [The Red Sea Crisis and Shipping Routes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-red-sea-crisis-and-shipping-routes/) - Comparing the deviations of shipping routes between three major container ports (Shanghai, Rotterdam, and New York), the main connecting alternatives are limited. The Cape of Good Hope deviation adds 7 to 10 days on Asia-Europe routes (Shanghai to Rotterdam) and about 5 days to connect Shanghai and New York through the Cape Route instead of
- [2022 TEU-to-GDP multiplier lowest recorded](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/2022-teu-to-gdp-multiplier-lowest-recorded/) - In line with a prior post underlining that 2022 represented the lowest growth of global container throughput in 40 years, 2022 also represented a threshold where the TEU-to-GDP multiplier almost reached zero for the first time (at 0.13). In the 2000s, this multiplier was around 3.5. Even if on an annual basis there is noticeable
- [World Container Throughput, 1980-2022 (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/world-container-throughput-1980-2022-update/) - 2022 represented the year with the lowest positive global container throughput growth in more than 40 years, at around 0.4%. A series of counter-forces are at play, including changes in outsourcing locations and high inflation in major consumer markets. Has peak containerization been reached?
- [Interoceanic Passages Chapter Updated](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/interoceanic-passages-chapter-updated/) - The chapter about the most important interoceanic passages has been updated. It mainly discusses economic and strategic issues, including a detailed analysis of each passage. Chapter 1.6 – Interoceanic Passages | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [New Chapter on the Containerization of Commodities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/new-chapter-on-the-containerization-of-commodities/) - A new chapter focuses on how containers have been used to transport commodities, cargoes that are not necessarily part of its conventional market. Chapter 8.5 – Containers: The Containerization of Commodities | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Global cruise passengers, 1990-2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/global-cruise-passengers-1990-2021/) - The cruise industry experienced a comeback in 2021, but figures are about half of what they were at their 2019 peak. For instance, Caribbean cruises were interrupted in March 2020, only to resume in June 2021. Global Cruise Passengers Carried and Growth Rates, 1990-2021 | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Value of Containerized Trade (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/value-of-containerized-trade-new/) - Added a new page providing an estimate of the value to containerized trade, which stands at around $54,000 per TEU. However, this figure must take account of the substantial variety of goods carried in containers by trade lanes and that 40-foot containers tend to carry more valuable goods on a per TEU basis than 20-foot
- [The concept of cyber-resilience (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-concept-of-cyber-resilience-new/) - Added a new page discussing the main dimensions of cybersecurity and the concept of cyber-resilience; implementing strategies that maintain the integrity of the IT of an organization from possible disruptions. This is mainly based on a report released by IAPH. Cyber-Resiliency Measures for Information Technologies | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Main Maritime Shipping Routes (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/main-maritime-shipping-routes-update/) - Updated the main maritime shipping routes page to include the Spilhaus projection, which displays all the world’s oceans as a single continuous body of water. This page served as background information for an article in the Wall Street Journal last march to explain the Suez Canal blockage. https://www.wsj.com/articles/companies-consider-alternative-routes-assess-costs-as-suez-canal-blockage-continues-11616693465 Main Maritime Shipping Routes | Port Economics,
- [Textbook final proofs under review](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/textbook-final-proofs-under-review/) - We have received this week the final proofs for "Port Economics, Management and Policy" for review. The textbook currently stands at 624 pages and will be available in January 2022.
- [The hinterland of single and multiple ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-hinterland-of-single-and-multiple-ports/) - Created a new page depicting the growing complexity of port hinterlands when multiple ports and when two or more maritime ranges are involved. The Hinterland of Single and Multiple Ports | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Risk of hurricanes for container ports (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/risk-of-hurricanes-for-container-ports-new/) - Added a new page trying to map the high-risk areas of container port disruptions due to hurricane activity. Coastal China, South Korea and Japan, and the American Eastern Seaboard are the areas with the highest risk levels. Risk of Hurricanes for Global Container Ports, 2019 | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Maritime ranges and hinterland accessibility](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/maritime-ranges-and-hinterland-accessibility/) - Created a map depicting the world's main maritime ranges and the general level of accessibility of their hinterlands. Maritime Ranges and Hinterland Accessibility | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Global Trade and Container Throughput (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/global-trade-and-container-throughput-update/) - The ongoing growth of international trade, both in absolute terms and in relation to global national income, a growth that appears to be leveling off. From 1980 to 2020 the value of exports has grown by a factor of 8.9 times if measured in current dollars, while GDP increased 7.4 times and the population increased
- [Textbook available for pre-order](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/textbook-available-for-pre-order/) - Port Economics, Management and Policy is now available for pre-order at Routledge. Publication is expected for January 2022. Port Economics, Management and Policy - 1st Edition - Theo Notteboom (routledge.com)
- [The concept of terminalization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-concept-of-terminalization/) - Added a new page explaining the terminalization of supply chains where (container) terminals can play a dual role; being a constraint or a buffer. Considering terminals as a constraint is a conventional effect on flows where the goal is to mitigate the cause of these constraints. Further, terminals can act as a buffer, or storage
- [Full draft version available](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/full-draft-version-available/) - A full draft version of Port Economics, Management & Policy is now available and provides a comprehensive overview of the port industry. Researchers and educators are encouraged to adopt the material for their courses and seminars. Routledge is expected to publish the 250,000 words textbook with 235 figures later this year. This project is the
- [Container terminal design and equipment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-terminal-design-and-equipment/) - A draft version of the chapter is now available. It covers main equipment issues for maritime and yard operations. Main differences between conventional and automated terminals are also discussed. Chapter 3.4 – Container Terminal Design and Equipment | Port Economics, Management and Policy (porteconomicsmanagement.org)
- [Financialization and terminal funding](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/financialization-and-terminal-funding/) - A draft version of the chapter covering the financing of port terminals is now available. Particular issues include financialization (the role of large financial institutions), financial risks, and financing models. Chapter 3.3 – Financialization and Terminal Funding | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Terminal concessions and land leases](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/) - The chapter covering terminal concessions is available. It includes the various arrangements, including PPP, and the concession awarding procedure. Chapter 3.2 – Terminal Concessions and Land Leases | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Terminals and terminal operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/terminals-and-terminal-operators/) - Chapter 3.1 covering port terminals and terminal operators is now available as a completed draft. It covers extensively the terminal operating business and is abundantly illustrated. Chapter 3.1 – Terminals and Terminal Operators | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Port resilience primer](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-resilience-primer/) - In light of the recent blockage of the Suez Canal, it is worth underlining that a draft section about port resilience is available. It covers a whole array of natural and anthropogenic factors, adaptation mechanisms, and tools for managing risks. Chapter 6.4 – Port Resilience | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Green supply chain management in ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/green-supply-chain-management-in-ports/) - A completed draft version of the chapter covering ports and green supply chains is available. It covers issues related to green procurement, energy, and the circular economy as they relate to ports. Chapter 2.5 – Green Supply Chain Management in Ports | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [The connectivity of maritime bottlenecks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-connectivity-of-maritime-bottlenecks/) - In addition to supporting major maritime trade routes, maritime bottlenecks such as Panama and Suez are also involved in large transshipment volumes. Long-distance connectivity is also complemented by feeder network connectivity that is associated with many bottlenecks. Connectivity Pattern of the World’s Major Maritime Bottlenecks | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Cruise ports and the sustainability challenge](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/cruise-ports-and-the-sustainability-challenge/) - On cruise ports and the sustainability challenge Chapter 8.1 Cruise Ports
- [A primer about the Suez Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/a-primer-about-the-suez-canal/) - To better understand the role of interoceanic canals in global trade and maritime shipping. Chapter 1.6 – Interoceanic Passages | Port Economics, Management and Policy
- [Ports and cruise shipping (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/ports-and-cruise-shipping-new/) - The draft version of a new chapter covering cruise shipping is now available.
- [Maritime Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/maritime-transportation-networks-and-vulnerabilities-new/) - Added a new page discussing the core vulnerabilities of maritime networks and the dominant risk factors: concentration, substitutability and dependence.
- [Trends and containership deployment (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/trends-and-containership-deployment-new/) - Three concurrent trends are observed in the deployment of containerships; technical, geographical, and operational. Thanks to @JanHoffmann_gva @UNCTAD @MdsTransmodal for the data.
- [Cruise terminals operated by GHP (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/cruise-terminals-operated-by-ghp-new/) - Like in the container terminal industry, cruise ports are being the object of concessionning for private cruise terminal operators. GPH is currently the world's largest, having a portfolio including the Mediterranean, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asian ports.
- [The Nicaragua Canal Project (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-nicaragua-canal-project-new/) - An overview of the Nicaragua Canal project and its main challenges. Over the last century, the megaproject has been brought forward on several occasions, the last time in 2013.
- [Container yard configurations (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-yard-configurations-new/) - Container yards rely on different stacking methods, broadly divided between linear and block configurations. Higher stacking densities are usually associated with more capital investments in equipment such as gantry cranes.
- [Circular economy in ports and maritime shipping (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/circular-economy-in-ports-and-maritime-shipping-new/) - Overview of the core circularity principles impacting ports and maritime shipping. Each sector has unique characteristics over which the circular economy can be applied. As capital-intensive assets ships and ports are conductive to circularity principles extending their life-cycle The container is an ideal circular good..
- [Functional and spatial development of a port (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/functional-and-spatial-development-of-a-port-update/) - A temporal, spatial and functional typology of port development.
- [Blockchains and intermodal transportation (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/blockchains-and-intermodal-transportation-update/) - An overview of an intermodal transport chain sequence and the associated information flows that can be embedded in a blockchain.
- [Functions of Selected Inland Ports (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/functions-of-selected-inland-ports-new/) - An overview of how inland ports are inserted within hinterland freight distribution in Europe and North America.
- [Containership size effect on port and hinterland traffic (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/containership-size-effect-on-port-and-hinterland-traffic-new/) - Economies of scale in containerships have substantial impacts on terminal and hinterland operations, even if port traffic does not change.
- [The components of the Panama Canal (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-components-of-the-panama-canal-update/) - The major components of the Panama Canal including locks and supporting infrastructure. Both the Atlantic and Caribbean sides have seen the development of transshipment facilities, making Panama the most important transshipment cluster of the Americas.
- [Container traffic around the Gibraltar cluster](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-traffic-around-the-gibraltar-cluster/) - As an intermediary location between the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, and West Africa, the Gibraltar cluster has experienced rapid growth of transshipment volumes, in part attributed to the ongoing massification of containerships along the Europe / Middle East / Asia routes.
- [Private Caribbean islands owned by cruise lines (new)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/private-caribbean-islands-owned-by-cruise-lines-new/) - Several major cruise lines have secured long term leases on islands and beaches, particularly in the Bahamas. The main rationale relates to revenue generation, the provision of a beach experience, flexibility in port calls, and exclusivity.
- [Container traffic around the Suez cluster](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-traffic-around-the-suez-cluster/) - The Suez Canal is a major interoceanic passage supporting the massive Europe / Middle East / Asia shipping routes. It has experienced significant growth in transshipment activities.
- [Container traffic around the Panama cluster](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-traffic-around-the-panama-cluster/) - Major bottlenecks of global maritime shipping are convenient locations for transshipment. The Panama cluster is no exception with more than 12 million TEUs handled in 2018.
- [Container Terminal Footprints (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-terminal-footprints-new-page/) - Added a page dealing with an analysis and classification of the main types of container terminal footprints. Although the ideal footprint is rectangular, significant variations are observed because of physical, technical, and regulatory constraints. Recent land reclamation mega-projects tend to create rectangular container terminal footprints. For comparison, the terminals are all displayed at the same
- [Alliances in Container Shipping (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/alliances-in-container-shipping-new-page/) - A review of the major alliances in the container shipping industry for the last quarter century. Compiled by Dr. Theo Notteboom.
- [Ports and Container Shipping (Chapter 1.3)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/ports-and-container-shipping-chapter-1-3/) - A draft version of the chapter about ports and container shipping is now available. It was authored by Dr. Theo Notteboom.
- [Liner Shipping Connectivity Index, 2020 (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/liner-shipping-connectivity-index-2020-update/) - Based on the index provided by UNCTAD, the map of the Liner Shipping Connectivity Index has been updated with 2020 figures. The index shows a high concentration in the distribution of port connectivity with a tier of highly connected ports.
- [Emission control areas (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/emission-control-areas-new-page/) - A review of emission control areas (ECA) and their impacts on shipping. About 17% of the global container port throughput is directly within and ECA.
- [Global merchandise exports and container throughput (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/global-merchandise-exports-and-container-throughput-update/) - Updated the association between merchandise exports and container throughput with the latest data. The last few years have been particularly volatile from the historical linear progression.
- [Port centrality and intermediacy (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-centrality-and-intermediacy-new-page/) - A review of the forms of intermediacy and centrality that a port can be a function of.
- [Types of port terminals (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/types-of-port-terminals-new-page/) - A typology of the main port terminal facilities, mainly of function of cargo unitization and commodity type.
- [Main ports of the Roman Empire (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/main-ports-of-the-roman-empire-new-page/) - One of the world's first comprehensive maritime shipping network composed of a system of port cities. Draft version and analysis remains to be further substantiated.
- [Container terminals controlled by holdings (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-terminals-controlled-by-holdings-new-page/) - The portfolio of container terminals controlled by terminal operators which are part of a portfolio of a financial actor such as a sovereign wealth fund.
- [Container terminals controlled by shipping lines (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-terminals-controlled-by-shipping-lines-new-page/) - The portfolio of container terminals controlled by terminal operators which are branch companies of shipping lines.
- [Container terminals controlled by stevedores (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/container-terminals-controlled-by-stevedores-new-page/) - The portfolio of container terminals controlled by terminal operators having a stevedoring origin.
- [Maritime capitals of the world (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/maritime-capitals-of-the-world-new-page/) - An overview of the hierarchy of the cities that command maritime power in terms of finance, shipping line ownership and logistics capabilities.
- [Major container port clusters (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/major-container-port-clusters-new-page/) - From a cluster perspective, the concentration of container port activities is impressive; Pareto's Law at its finest.
- [Earthquake risk for global container ports (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/earthquake-risk-for-global-container-ports-new-page/) - Created a map ranking container port earthquake risk (#port #risk #trade).
- [Inland terminal clusters in North America (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/inland-terminal-clusters-in-north-america-new-page/) - Dry ports in North America tend to cluster around major distribution hubs. Lower tiered hubs tend to have just one intermodal terminal while high tiered hubs have many.
- [World's largest coastal cities (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/worlds-largest-coastal-cities-new-page/) - More than half of the world's large cities and the urban population are less than 100 km from the coastline.
- [The maritime / land interface (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-maritime-land-interface-update/) - Overview of the key actors involved in the facilitation of the interactions between maritime and land transport systems.
- [Reefer slots by container port (update)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/reefer-slots-by-container-port-update/) - Updated the map in the port cold chains page dealing with the number of reefer slots by container port. There are several patterns explaining this distribution.
- [Port energy markets (new chapter)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-energy-markets-new-chapter/) - Completed a draft version of the chapter discussing the insertion of ports into energy markets. This chapter was challenging to write and will need several reviewing iterations.
- [Largest bunker fuel markets (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/largest-bunker-fuel-markets-new-page/) - Added a page displaying the most important bunkering markets. Two geographical factors are at play: centrality and intermediacy.
- [Shipping lanes and energy trades in the Middle East (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/shipping-lanes-and-energy-trades-in-the-middle-east-new-page/) - Added a page presenting from a geographical perspective the concentration of gas and petroleum production in the Middle East.
- [Emerging global maritime transport system (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/emerging-global-maritime-transport-system-new-page/) - Discussion about the emerging structure of global maritime shipping. Based in prior work for the ITF.
- [Functional integration of maritime supply chains (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/functional-integration-of-maritime-supply-chains-new-page/) - The level of integration in maritime supply chains, the outcome of vertical and horizontal processes.
- [Harbor Types (New page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/harbor-types-new-page/) - Added a new page covering the major harbor types; the physical setting of port facilities.
- [Port sites](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-sites/) - Added a new page representing an inventory of port sites among ports with the largest tonnage. 70% of sample are seaports. Mainland ports account for only 30% of the sample.
- [Port Dimensions (New page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-dimensions-new-page/) - Added a page covering the four major dimension defining the role and function of a port.
- [The port of Portus, Ancient Rome (New page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-port-of-portus-ancient-rome-new-page/) - Added a page proving an overview of the main port of the Roman Empire, Portus, from which the term port was derived.
- [Port-centric energy production (new page)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-centric-energy-production-new-page/) - Added a new page presenting the two core locational options of upstream and downstream clusters. It is part of a section about port energy markets under development.
- [Ports and Shipping in the COVID-19 Pandemic (New Article)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/ports-and-shipping-in-the-covid-19-pandemic-new-article/) - The editors (Notteboom, Pallis & Rodrigue) have published a brief for the 100th edition of Port Technology International It covers an assessment of the impacts of COVID-19 of shipping and ports. It can be accessed through this link:
- [Chapter about the container market available](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/chapter-about-the-container-market-available/) - The draft version of a new chapter covering the container market is now available.
- [Maritime shipping and international trade chapter available](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade-chapter-available/) - A draft version of the chapter covering the relationships between maritime shipping and international trade is available.
- [Port clusters chapter available](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-clusters-chapter-available/) - A first draft version of the chapter covering port clusters is available, including port-centric logistics.
- [Port Management, Governance and Leadership (new section)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-management-governance-and-leadership-new-section/) - A draft version of a new section about port management and leadership is now available. It was authored by Dr. Geraldine Knatz, former executive director of the Port of Los Angeles from 2006 to 2014.
- [The port of Savannah logistics cluster section moved](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-port-of-savannah-logistics-cluster-section-moved/) - The section covered port-centric logistics for the port of Savannah was moved from the Geography of Transport Systems to Port Economics, Management and Policy.
- [Competition between the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach moved](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/competition-between-the-ports-of-los-angeles-and-long-beach-moved/) - The section about competition between the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach has been moved from the Geography of Transport Systems to the Port Economics, Management and Policy web site. This topic is authored by Dr. Geraldine Knatz, former executive director of the Port of Los Angeles.
- [The Emerging Role of Connectivity in Port Centric Logistics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/the-emerging-role-of-connectivity-in-port-centric-logistics/) - I wrote a short primer for Port Technology International for an ebook covering port-centric logistics. The piece, part of a compendium of 4 articles, can freely be retrieved here;
- [Terminals and Terminal Operators chapter available](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/terminals-and-terminal-operators-chapter-available/) - A draft version of the chapter covering port terminals and terminal operators is now available.
- [Port Automation section added](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/port-automation-section-added/) - The draft of a new section about port terminal automation has been added. It is still work in progress but provides an overview about how port automation is changing the maritime shipping industry.
- [Added chapter about the geography of seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/added-chapter-about-the-geography-of-seaports/)
- [Chapter about port cold chains added](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/chapter-about-port-cold-chains-added/) - Added a new chapter discussing the role of ports in cold chain logistics, particularly over the reefer trade.

## Pages

- [Port Economics, Management and Policy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/) - Port Economics, Management, and Policy (PEMP) analyses the contemporary port industry and how ports serve the global economy and development needs.
- [Port Economics, Management and Policy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/) - Port Economics, Management, and Policy (PEMP) analyses the contemporary port industry and how ports serve the global economy and development needs.
- [Port Economics, Management and Policy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/) - Port Economics, Management, and Policy (PEMP) analyses the contemporary port industry and how ports serve the global economy and development needs.
- [Port Economics, Management and Policy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/) - Port Economics, Management, and Policy (PEMP) analyses the contemporary port industry and how ports serve the global economy and development needs.
- [Chapter 5.1 - Breakbulk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/) - Break bulk is general cargo carried as single or bundled pieces, not stowed into a container, or not transported in ship-sized liquid or dry bulk loads.
- [Chapter 4.4 - Port Labor](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-labor/) - Dockworkers are essential to terminal performance and overall port competitiveness. They are challenged by changing market requirements, which results in dock labor reform and adaptations in working practices.
- [GLOSSARY](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/glossary/) - Automation (Terminal). A full or partial substitution of terminal operations through the use of automated equipment and processes. Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV). Cargo-handling equipment providing horizontal transport in automatic terminal environments. Automated Stacking Crane (ASC). Cargo-handling equipment providing yard stacking function in automated terminal environments. Berthing Proforma. Contractually agreed berth windows and service level agreement,
- [Chapter 1.3 - Interoceanic Passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/) - Maritime transportation evolves over a global maritime space with its own constraints, such as the profile of continental masses and the detours and passages it creates.
- [Alternatives to Oil and Container Routes of the Strait of Hormuz](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/alternatives-routes-strait-hormuz/) - Source: Author's compilation. The Strait of Hormuz is of strategic importance to the global oil trade, particularly because there are limited alternatives. The Iran War in 2026 underlined the strategic importance of the Strait of Hormuz and the impact of its interdiction. This led to the consideration of alternatives to the oil and container routes through the
- [Chapter 3.4 - Ports and Energy Transition](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/) - Ports are strategically important locations in the collection, storage, transformation, and distribution of energy. Many have undertaken a transition toward their electrification and the use of alternative energy sources.
- [Main Routing Alternatives between East Asia and Northern Europe](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/main-routing-alternatives-east-asia-northern-europe/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2011) "Emerging Global Networks in the Container Terminal Operating Industry", in T. Notteboom (ed) Current Issues in Shipping, Ports and Logistics, Brussels: Academic & Scientific Publishers. pp. 243-270. ISBN 978-9-054878582. PDF Map Long-distance transportation seeks to minimize distances, but maritime shipping must follow specific routes constrained by
- [Circum-Hemispheric Rings of Circulation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/circum-hemispheric-rings-circulation/) - Source: Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2009) "The Future of Containerization: Perspectives from Maritime and Inland Freight Distribution", Geojournal, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 7-22. North Pole Orthographic Projection. PDF Map The setting of a global "containerized highway" involving continuity between inland and maritime transport systems is expected as containerization continues to diffuse. For the
- [Main Routing Alternatives between the Pacific and Atlantic](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/routing-alternatives-pacific-atlantic/) - PDF Map At the macro level, due to the world's geography, there are two intercontinental connectivity alternatives: those linking Asia and Europe and those linking the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The Panama Canal is obviously the shortest operational route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. After close to one century of existence, the Panama Canal, which
- [Chapter 0.1 - Defining Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/) - A seaport is a node in global supply chains with a strong maritime character and a functional and spatial clustering of port-related activities.
- [Elasticity of Supply of Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/elasticity-supply-port-services/) - The price elasticity of the supply of a port service (ES) expresses the degree of responsiveness (sensitivity) of the quantity of a port service supplied to a change in its price within a specific market: ES=(Δpp)(Δqq)E_S = \left( \frac{\Delta p}{p} \right) \left( \frac{\Delta q}{q} \right) ES=Δp⋅qΔq⋅pE_S = \frac{\Delta p \cdot q}{\Delta q \cdot p} Where:
- [Elasticity of Demand for Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/elasticity-demand-port-services/) - A. Price Elasticity of Demand for Port Service The price elasticity of demand for a port service describes how responsive (sensitive) demand is to a change in the service’s price within a specific market. ED=−Δq/qΔp/pED = -\frac{\Delta q / q}{\Delta p / p} ED=−Δq⋅pΔp⋅qED = -\frac{\Delta q \cdot p}{\Delta p \cdot q} Where: ED = Price
- [Supply Function for a Port Service](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/supply-function-for-a-port-service/) - A supply function represents the relationship between the price of a service and the quantity of the service that service providers are willing to supply during a specific time frame. This function reflects various economic and operational factors that influence the capacity to provide service and can be expressed as: λ=f(Pλ,[Ps1..Psn],[Pc1..Pcn],Po,Te,g)_\lambda = f\left( P_\lambda, \left[
- [Demand Function for Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/demand-for-port-services/) - The quantity of the demand for a particular port service (e.g., cargo loading or unloading) is determined by a demand function that incorporates various microeconomic and macroeconomic factors, and can be expressed as: DA=f(PA,[PS1..PSn],[PC1..PCn],N,Y,Vt,S,QA,[QS1..QSn],[QC1..QCn],L,E,P,R,Te)D_A= f\left(P_A, \left[ P_{S1}..P_{Sn} \right], \left[ P_{C1}..P_{Cn} \right], N, Y,V_t,S,Q_A, \left[ Q_{S1}..Q_{Sn} \right],\left[ Q_{C1}..Q_{Cn} \right], L, E, P, R, T_e \right) Where:
- [Chapter 4.2 - Terminal Concessions and Land Leases](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/) - Most port terminals are leased to terminal operators through concessions involving a bidding process to capture the terminal asset.
- [Chapter 7.4 – River Cruises and Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/river-cruises-and-ports/) - River cruises have emerged as a distinctive form of tourism that blends leisure with cultural and environmental engagement. Seaports located near river systems can adopt a role as home ports for river cruises.
- [Chapter 6.1 - Ports and Container Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/) - Maritime services vary with the commodities carried. In liner shipping, individual maritime services are combined to form extensive shipping networks in which seaports play a pivotal role as high connectivity hubs.
- [CONTENTS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/) - Important note: The second edition was released in May 2026. Since the first edition, the online table of contents has undergone significant change with new chapters being added and existing chapters being revised/extended and reordered. To help trace the chapters of the first edition of the hardcopy version of the book (2022) in this online
- [World Energy Consumption, 1965-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/world-energy-consumption/) - Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy. World Bank for population data. In million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE). Global energy consumption underscores the enduring prevalence of fossil fuels, with limited change as overall consumption increases while per capita energy intensity declines. As of 2023, coal, oil, and natural gas accounted for 82% of energy
- [The Geostrategy of Maritime Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/geostrategy-maritime-shipping/) - Geostrategy relates to the role of geography as a facilitator or constraint to maritime shipping, which is associated with the selection of specific routes and the conditions for their use. This mainly relates to the effects of physical and political geography: Physical geography. The most fundamental factors concern the contour of oceanic masses, which impose
- [Conventional and Automated Container Terminal Configurations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/conventional-automated-container-terminal-configurations/) - Container terminals have at least one berth that allows containerships to be served by ship-to-shore (STS) cranes, which pick up or drop off containers on the apron. In a conventional container yard relying on rubber-tired gantry cranes (RTGs), stacks are oriented parallel to the berths to facilitate operations and better use the available footprint. If
- [Chapter 6.5 - Container Terminal Design and Equipment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/) - A container terminal is a specialized terminal facility that handles the transshipment, storage, and temporary storage of containers between at least two transportation modes. They have a footprint that includes quays, yard areas, equipment such as cranes, and other support facilities, including administrative and maintenance buildings, as well as warehouses.
- [Supply Factors for Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/supply-factors-port-services/) - The supply of port services is impacted by four fundamental factors: Price of port services. According to supply curve S, if the price of port services increases, the supply of port services will increase. Alternatively, if the price of port services declines, the supply of port services will decline. Price at substitute port. If a
- [Chapter 5.2 – Roll-on/Roll-off (RORO)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/) - Author: Dr. Theo Notteboom and Dr. Athanasios Pallis Several ports develop terminals serving the Roll-On/Roll-Off (RORO) shipping market, which specializes in transporting wheeled cargo, such as cars, trucks, trailers, and other heavy machinery, that are driven on and off the vessels on their own wheels. 1. Types of RORO Vessels The RORO vessels market offers
- [The Largest Available RORO Vessel, 1985-2026 (in CEUs)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/the-largest-available-roro-vessel-ceus/) - Like container shipping, economies of scale can be applied to RORO vessels, but this requires a corresponding capability of the market to generate demand. The growth of the RORO fleet is closely tied to the expansion of global vehicle trade, particularly in the automotive sector. Conventionally, the car industry was characterized by regional production clusters
- [Average Operating Margins of Main Carriers by Quarter, Q1 2008 to Q1 2026](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/average-operating-margins-carriers-quarter/) - Source: own compilation based on Alphaliner data. Note Average of CMA CGM (incl APL to 2Q 2016), CSCL (to 1Q2016), COSCO (from 3Q 2018), Evergreen, Hanjin (to 3Q 2016), Hapag-Lloyd (incl CSAV to 2014), HMM, Maersk, ONE (from 2Q 2018, formerly K-Line, MOL and NYK), Wan Hai, Yang Ming and Zim. The 2008-2009 financial crisis
- [Theo Notteboom - Short Bio](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/about/short-cv-theo-notteboom/) - ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1203-2571 Theo Notteboom is Professor of maritime and port economics. He is Chair Professor ‘North Sea Port’ at the Maritime Institute, Faculty of Law and Criminology, Ghent University; Professor at Department of Transport and Regional Economics, Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Antwerp; and Professor at Faculty of Sciences, Antwerp Maritime Academy. He
- [Chapter 2.1 - Port Hinterlands, Regionalization and Corridors](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/) - Port hinterlands are strategic market areas to interact and compete. An important strategy has been the setting up of corridors and inland load centers.
- [Elements of the Maritime Industry](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/elements-maritime-industry/) - The maritime industry is composed of a wide range of activities, many of which are interrelated and interdependent. It can be divided into four major groups. Maritime Shipping The ocean side of the industry, with the main purpose of performing the transport function or extracting oceanic resources. It is the only segment of the industry
- [Chapter 8.3 - Port Coordination and Cooperation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/) - Ports can develop cooperation and coordination strategies providing an integrated transportation service beneficial to actors involved in port supply chains.
- [Core Components of Terminal Construction Costs](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/core-components-terminal-construction-costs/) - Port terminal construction costs can be categorized into three types of expenditures: Capital expenditures (Capex; around 60% of total costs) are divided into maritime infrastructure (30%) and yard civil works costs (30%). Marine infrastructure concerns work related to the nautical readiness of a terminal for the expected ship class. It can involve channel and berth
- [Chapter 4.5 - Port Terminal Construction](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/) - Ship and terminal demand characteristics determine the requirements for terminal construction in terms of nautical access conditions, quay walls, and terminal layout and equipment.
- [Singapore Tuas Port Expansion Project](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/singapore-tuas-port-expansion-project/) - Singapore is the world’s most important transshipment hub, connecting maritime routes between East Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania, and South Asia. The oldest container terminal facilities in Singapore (Tanjong Pagar, Keppel, and Brani) are located near the central area. The Tanjong Pagar has been vacant since 2017. In 1993, the construction of the Pasir Panjang 1
- [Port Terminal Infrastructure and Superstructure](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/port-terminal-infrastructure-investments/) - Port terminals, including container terminals, are composed of integrated infrastructure and superstructure systems. The construction, maintenance, and upgrade of these elements require substantial capital investment. Land reclamation works, including capital dredging and maintenance dredging of access channels and basins. Quay-wall construction and maintenance. Apron, mooring equipment and fenders. Paving of the terminal, including yards and
- [Ship Characteristics and Capacity Measures](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/ship-characteristics-capacity-measures/) - Measuring the capacity of a ship is derived from the following methods: Displacement tonnage. The total weight of a ship when fully loaded to the waterline (or baseline), which is the line of maximal safe loading. It is measured by using the corresponding weight of the water being displaced by the volume of the ship
- [Effect of the Panama Canal Draft Limitation on Containership Capacity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/panama-canal-draft-limitation-containership-capacity/) - Since the Panama Canal relies on freshwater from Lake Alajuela and Lake Gatun, regional rainfall is fundamental to planning its operations. About 200 million liters of water are needed to supply the new lock system with enough water for each ship to pass through. A lack of rainfall reduces these water reserves. Due to an
- [Chapter 4.1 - Terminals and Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/) - Authors: Dr. Theo Notteboom, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Athanasios Pallis Ports are composed of specialized terminals designed to handle a specific cargo type. An increasing number of port terminals, serving either cargoes or passengers, are managed by operators maintaining an international portfolio. 1. Port Terminals Ports are primarily multifunctional entities, but this characteristic often
- [Largest Global Container Terminal Operators by Equity-Based Throughput, 2018-24](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/global-container-terminal-operators-equity-based-throughput/) - Note: Figures include all terminals in which 10% plus shareholdings were held. Figures do not include operations at common-user terminals. Note: China Merchants Port acquired a 28% stake in SIPG in 2022. COSCO acquired a 15% stake in SIPG in 2021. Source: Drewry, Annual Review of Global Container Terminal Operators. Since terminal operators have various
- [Chapter 4.3 - Financialization, Terminal Funding and Valuation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/) - Port terminals are capital-intensive assets that require investments for their construction, expansion, and maintenance.
- [The Largest Cruise Vessel in the World (2025): Icon of the Seas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/largest-cruise-vessel/) - Photo: Royal Caribbean In 2024, the Icon of Seas was introduced as the world's largest cruise ship, with a capacity of 5,610 passengers at double occupancy and 7,600 at full capacity, and a crew of 2,350. She has a gross registered tonnage of 248,663 and a length of 365 meters. It is not only the
- [Chinese-Financed Port Projects, 2000-2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/chinese-financed-port-projects/) - Source: AidData CPORTS Dataset. PDF Map Chinese investments in port projects since 2000 are geared to reinforce its global connectivity and access to strategic resources and markets. Totaling about 24 billion USD in the form of loans and grants from state institutions, these funds were allocated to about 168 ports for the construction of port
- [Chapter 11.1 - Ports, Policies, and Geopolitics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/) - The setting, planning, development, and daily functions of ports are subject to public policies and can be part of a geopolitical agenda.
- [Tanker Sizes and Classes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/tanker-size/) - There are different tanker sizes used for the international transportation of oil, from a modest coastal tanker to a VLCC or ULCC Supertanker. The common rule is that the volume that can be carried in a tanker increases as a function of the cube of its length. For instance, a ULCC is about twice the
- [Private Islands in the Caribbean Owned by Cruise Lines](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/private-islands-caribbean-owned-cruise-lines/) - Note: Figures are estimated average number of visitors per year. The acquisition of Great Stirrup Cay by Norwegian Cruises in 1977 marks the beginning of a trend in which large cruise lines secure private islands (or beaches) for their exclusive use. The acquisition typically takes the form of a long-term lease (up to 99 years,
- [Oil Transportation and Major Chokepoints](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/oil-transportation-and-major-chokepoints/) - Source: Adapted from The International Tankers Owners Pollution Federation Limited & Energy Information Administration, World Oil Transit Chokepoints. PDF Map The structure of the global oil shipping network is relatively simple. The bulk of the oil transported (60% to 70%) uses maritime transportation, which follows very specific routes and is constrained by strategic passages commonly referred to
- [Cruise Terminal Operators: Typology and Drivers of Market Entry](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/typology-strategies-cruise-terminal-operators/) - Source: Adapted from Pallis A.A., Parola, F., Satta G. & Notteboom T. (2018). Private Entry and Emerging Partnerships in Cruise Terminal Operations in the Mediterranean Sea, Maritime Economics and Logistics, 20(1), 1-28.
- [Container Terminals Operated by DPW, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-operated-dpw/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants.
- [Container Terminals Operated by PSA, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-operated-psa/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants.
- [Container Terminals Operated by HPH, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-operated-hph/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants.
- [Container Terminals Operated by APM, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-operated-apmt/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants.
- [Container Terminals Controlled by Holdings, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-controlled-holdings/) - Source: Authors’ compilation based on data adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants. PDF Map A category of terminal operators involves holdings that are supported by financial institutions such as sovereign wealth funds. Therefore, terminal assets are part of a portfolio of transport infrastructure, with port terminals representing an operating branch. Dubai Ports World is a salient
- [Container Terminals Controlled by Shipping Lines, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-controlled-shipping-lines/) - Source: Authors’ compilation based on data adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants. PDF Map A category of terminal operators concerns terminal operating branches of shipping lines. APM Terminals (Maersk) and Terminal Investment Limited (MSC) are salient examples of terminal operating companies directly linked with a shipping line. Shipping lines account for about 31% of the hectares
- [Container Terminals Controlled by Stevedores, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-controlled-by-stevedores/) - Source: Authors’ compilation based on data adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants. PDF Map A category of terminal operators concerns stevedores that undertook internationalization strategies from their home ports. PSA (Port of Singapore Authority) and HPH (Hong Kong) are salient examples of stevedores that have exported their expertise in terminal management by acquiring an international portfolio
- [Value Propositions behind the Interest of Equity Firms in Transport Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/value-propositions-interest-equity-firms-transport-terminals/) - Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P, T. Notteboom and A. Pallis (2010) “The Financialization of the Terminal and Port Industry: Rediscovering Risk”, International Association of Maritime Economists. The rationale for the growing involvement of the financial sector in port terminals is mainly that terminals are increasingly capital-intensive because their assets have intrinsic and operational value. The
- [Chapter 1.2 - Ports and Maritime Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/) - Seaports serve as platforms within global supply chains and production networks, which are highly dynamic as they respond to changes in global trade patterns, consumer preferences, and advancements in supply chain management and information technology.
- [Potential Impacts of Interoceanic Passages and Canals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/potential-impacts-interoceanic-passages-canals/) - The setting or expansion of interoceanic passages and canals can have three types of interdependent impacts. Operational impacts. Relate to the characteristics of the passage in terms of capacity, reliability, and transit time, all of which are linked to its usage costs. The first and most salient impact involves reducing the aggregate shipping distance, commonly
- [Chapter 7.1 - Cruise Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/) - The global cruise industry offers a combination of local destinations accessible through the cruise port and onboard amenities offered by the cruise ship.
- [Container Terminal Automation: Hierarchy of Drivers and Achieved Benefits](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/container-terminal-automation-drivers-achieved-benefits/) - Source: Knatz G., Notteboom T. & Pallis A.A. (2023). Container Terminal Automation: Assessment of Drivers and Benefits.Maritime Policy and Management, 51(6), 1252-1276. A wide range of factors contribute to the decision to automate a terminal. In addition to purely economic and technical factors, institutional factors and dynamics in stakeholder relations also significantly impact terminal automation. The
- [Chapter 6.6 - Container Terminal Automation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/) - Terminal automation is a full or partial substitution of terminal operations through the use of automated equipment and processes.
- [Ownership of European and American Port Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/ownership-european-port-authorities/) - Source: adapted from P. Verhoeven (2011) European Port Governance, European Seaports Organization (ESPO). American Association of Port Authorities. The great majority of European and American port authorities are publicly owned, like in much of the rest of the world. In Europe, central (state/federal) governments and municipalities are the two main types of ownership. Private ownership
- [Chapter 8.2 - Port Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/) - Port authorities are involved in port management and promotion. With the increasing presence of private operators, the role of port authorities has evolved.
- [The Main Activities of Landlord Port Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/activities-landlord-port-authorities/) - Source: adapted from De Langen, P. (2008) Ensuring Hinterland Access: The Role of Port Authorities, JTRC Discussion Paper 2008-11. A port authority is managing assets and relations. Its activities range from operational to strategic issues. Operational issues are obviously related to the day-to-day management of port activities such as vessel scheduling, pilotage, tugs, and security.
- [Forms of Container Terminal Process Automation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/forms-container-terminal-process-automation/) - Source: Adapted from Kalmar SmartPort: The Path to Process Automation. The two fundamental forms of container terminal automation involve process and operational automation. While operational automation focuses on the systems in place for the physical vertical and horizontal movements of containers, process automation is another layer that relies on "softer" forms of automation, leaning more
- [Cumulative Number of Automated Terminals and Automated Surface](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/cumulative-number-automated-terminals-automated-surface/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants and Port Equipment Manufacturers Association. Container terminal automation follows a standard technological diffusion cycle that involves adoption, growth, peak growth, and maturity, which represents full adoption. Until the late 2000s, only a few terminals implemented automation strategies because these strategies involved unproven technologies, high capital costs, and significant risk.
- [Automated Container Terminals, 2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/fully-semi-automated-container-terminals-total-hectares/) - PDF Map Source: Data from Rodrigue, J-P (2025) “A Systemic Analysis of Container Terminal Layouts”, Journal of Shipping and Trade, Vol. 10, No. 4, https://doi.org/10.1186/s41072-025-00194-3. An inventory of container terminal automation reveals a rapidly evolving situation. Although the information is likely incomplete, 76 container terminals worldwide were having a form of operational automation as of
- [Port Terminal Automation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/freight-terminal-automation/) - Freight terminal automation involves a physical (equipment) and an information component: Process automation. Mainly involves information-processing technologies that enable more efficient management of terminal operations and container flows. Terminal Operating Systems, optical character recognition, and RFID are examples of process automation. This can also involve automated gate systems that allow for the quick processing of
- [Chapter 5.4 - Dry and Liquid Bulk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/) - Dry bulk and liquid bulk terminals offer a diverse range of terminal designs and functions, along with a broad selection of quay, yard, and warehousing equipment.
- [Evolution of the Port of Rotterdam](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/evolution-port-rotterdam/) - The port of Rotterdam is 40 km long, 10 km wide, and accommodates 30,000 oceangoing ships and 130,000 river ships yearly. It has 2,000 hectares of basins for a total of 10,500 hectares, including warehousing and industrial areas. In 2022, the port handled 467 million tons of freight, including 14.4 million TEUs of container traffic.
- [Spatial Development of the Port of Antwerp and Waterfront Redevelopment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/spatial-development-port-antwerp-waterfront-redevelopment/) - Antwerp is Europe’s second-largest port in terms of cargo throughput and Europe’s second-largest container port behind Rotterdam. The port is the European market leader in conventional general cargo, such as steel, fruit, and forest products. It has covered more than 6 million square meters of warehousing space in the port area. The port of Antwerp
- [Chapter 3.1 - The Spatial Transition of Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/) - Ports are embedded in their geography with their location impacted by technical constraints such as the nautical profile, port users, inland transport networks, and maritime shipping networks.
- [Types of Automated Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/types-automated-terminals/) - The nature and level of container terminal automation can be confusing, as the term "automated terminal" can refer to several different aspects. The definition relies on operational automation, implying the physical systems in place for container handling within the terminal facility. From that perspective, three main levels of terminal automation can be considered: A. Semi-Automated
- [Modal Separation in Space: Europa Terminal in Antwerp](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/modal-separation-space-europa-terminal-antwerp/) - Source: Terminal photo from PSA Antwerp. Europa Terminal at the Port of Antwerp is managed by the terminal operator PSA (Port of Singapore Authority) and is one of the seven major container terminal complexes in the port. It is a good example of the modal separation in space that characterizes modern container terminals and the
- [The Evolution of a Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/spatial-evolution-port/) - Anyport describes how port infrastructure evolves in time and space. Examining the evolution of British ports, the five-stage model illustrates how facilities typically develop. Starting from the initial port site with small lateral quays adjacent to the city center, the setup of wharves is a product of evolving maritime technologies and improvements in cargo handling. The
- [Automated Terminals in the United States](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/automated-terminals-united-states/) - There are 84 container terminals in the United States, located in 30 container ports. The first automated container terminal in the United States, Virginia International Gateway, was opened in 2007 as a greenfield project. Then, at the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, TraPac Terminal (2014) and Long Beach Container Terminal (2016) were automated
- [Main Maritime Shipping Routes and Chokepoints](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/main-maritime-shipping-routes/) - PDF Map PDF Map (Spilhaus Projection) Note: The terms bottleneck or choke point are also commonly used. The Spilhaus projection is centered on Antarctica and displays all the world's oceans as a single continuous body of water. There are potentially an infinite number of maritime shipping routes that can be used for maritime shipping, but
- [Functional and Spatial Development of a Seaport](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/functional-spatial-development-seaport/) - Source: adapted from: UNCTAD (1999) The fourth generation port. UNCTAD Ports Newsletter, 19, pp. 9-12. Flynn, M., Lee, T., & Notteboom, T. (2011) "The next step on the port generations ladder: Customer-centric and community ports". In Current Issues in Shipping, Ports and Logistics (Vol. 1–27, pp. 497–510). The widely cited port-type generations of UNCTAD and
- [Main Ports of the Roman Empire, c125 CE](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/main-ports-roman-empire-c125-ce/) - Sources: Cities: Hanson, J. W. (2016). Cities Database (OXREP databases). Version 1.0. Ports: de Graauw, A. et al. 2014. "Geodatabase of Ancient Ports and Harbors," DARMC Scholarly Data Series, Data Contribution Series # 2013-2 (version 1.1). DARMC, Center for Geographic Analysis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138. Roads: McCormick, M. et al. 2013 - Roman Road
- [Port Centrality and Intermediacy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/port-centrality-intermediacy/) - Ports serve two functions related to their connectivity to the foreland and hinterland. Centrality refers to how a port is connected to its hinterland and to the economic density of its market. A port with high centrality has a dense, well-connected hinterland, whereas a port with low centrality has a low-density hinterland with limited connections.
- [Cargo Carried by Steamship by Port City, 1890-1925](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/cargo-carried-steamship-port-city/) - Source: Lloyd’s List. Adapted from Ducruet C. (2012) Ports et routes maritimes dans le monde (1890-1925), Mappemonde, 106. Notes: Ports having a traffic of more than 10,000 tons. PDF Map The period between 1890 and 1925 underlines the dominance of the steamship as a support to global trade with its diffusion to ports across the
- [Container Traffic Handled at the Main Ports Around the Strait of Hormuz](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-handled-ports-strait-of-hormuz/) - The emergence of the Strait of Hormuz as a transshipment hub for container shipping is a recent phenomenon since the area was primarily focused on the oil and gas trade. Economic growth and diversification have been associated with rising cargo volumes in the Persian Gulf, contributing to its emergence as a major trade and logistics platform.
- [The Insertion and Location of Transshipment Hubs](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/insertion-location-transshipment-hubs/) - The primary rationale for utilizing transshipment hubs is to enhance the overall efficiency and geographical reach of maritime container shipping networks. A transshipment alternative enables linking ports to the global maritime shipping system, considering existing ship assets, as direct services cannot be established between all ports. The insertion of a transshipment hub within existing networks
- [Emission Control Areas for Maritime Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/emission-control-areas-maritime-shipping/) - Source: IMO and Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ), Belgium; (2020). Emission Control Areas (ECAs) designated under regulation 13 of MARPOL Annex VI (NOx emission control). PDF Map The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) established a protocol titled "Prevention of air pollution from ships" that became effective in 2005. Under this protocol,
- [Carrier and Merchant Haulage in the Hinterland](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/carrier-merchant-haulage-hinterland/) - Hinterland transportation can be either organized by the maritime shipping line or by the cargo owner: Carrier haulage. The shipping line is responsible for the inland movement of a container (or other cargoes) by booking an inland carrier as a third party. The cargo owner is issued a single contract covering the whole transportation sequence.
- [The Hinterland of Single and Multiple Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/hinterland-single-multiple-ports/) - The concept of hinterland can be influenced by the configuration of the maritime ranges, notably the number and distribution of ports. Three basic contexts can be considered: Single port (A). The main hinterland is captive, as there are no or limited options to use an alternative port. Such hinterlands are usually found in developing economies
- [Maritime Ranges and Hinterland Accessibility](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/maritime-ranges-hinterland-accessibility/) - Source: Maritime ranges from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Geography of Maritime Ranges: Interfacing Global Maritime Shipping Networks with Hinterlands”, Geojournal. Accessibility from Nelson, A. (2008) Estimated travel time to the nearest city of 50,000 or more people in 2000. Global Environment Monitoring Unit - Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Ispra Italy. PDF Map
- [The Eurasian Landbridges](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/eurasian-landbridge/) - The Eurasian landbridges are a set of railway lines connecting Asia to Europe. The main arteries of the Northern Corridor are the Trans-Siberian Railway, the Trans-Manchurian Railway, the Trans-Mongolian Railway, and the Baikal Amur Mainline (BAM; opened in 1991). The Trans-Siberian Railway offers a transit time ranging from 12 to 18 days along a 10,000
- [A Spatial Model on Logistics Sites in the Port Hinterland](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/spatial-model-logistics-sites-port-hinterland/) - Source: Adapted from Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2005) “Port Regionalization: Towards a New Phase in Port Development”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 297-313. Developing inland terminals is insufficient to ensure efficient port regionalization and inland distribution. Infrastructures servicing freight are required inland, a function assumed by distribution centers where vast
- [The East Asian Container Port System and its Multi-port Gateway Regions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/east-asian-container-port-system-multi-port-gateway-regions/) - East Asia can be considered a continental and maritime space. The continental space is a continuous landmass, including China and the Koreas. China is composed of three major hinterlands with a cluster of container ports. In the South, the Pearl River Delta is a massive accumulation of manufacturing, logistics, and port facilities, with Hong Kong
- [The European Container Port System and its Multi-port Gateway Regions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/european-container-port-system-multi-port-gateway-regions/) - Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2010) "Comparative North American and European Gateway Logistics: The Regionalism of Freight Distribution", Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 497-507. The European port system is composed of two major maritime facades, one on the Atlantic side and the other on the Mediterranean. In particular,
- [World’s Largest Container Port Clusters, 2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/worlds-largest-container-port-clusters/) - Note: The port density is calculated using the kernel density method that calculates the density of ports within a radius of 100km and weighted by their respective traffic in TEU. PDF Map Container port activity exhibits a high level of clustering, with 60.4% of all activity accounted for by 21 distinct clusters. They are directly
- [Types of Hinterland Accessibility](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/types-hinterland-accessibility/) - Relative accessibility. Describes the degree of connection between any two nodes in a transport system, such as a seaport and an inland location. For instance, it can refer to the relative accessibility between port A and inland location B through port P by links 1 and 2. Integral accessibility. Describes the degree of interconnection between
- [Vertical and Horizontal Integration in Port Development](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/vertical-horizontal-integration-port-development/) - In economic theory, vertical integration involves an entity, such as a manufacturer, attempting to acquire or control upstream or downstream activities at the stage in which it operates. Therefore, a manufacturer may attempt to acquire some of its suppliers, as well as the distributors or retailers it sells to. Horizontal integration involves acquiring entities that
- [The Spatial Development of a Port System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/spatial-development-port-system/) - Source: Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2005) “Port Regionalization: Towards a New Phase in Port Development”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 297-313. Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2010) “Foreland-Based Regionalization: Integrating Intermediate Hubs with Port Hinterlands”, Research in Transportation Economics, Vol. 27, pp. 19-29. A port system can go through a
- [Bottleneck and Warehousing-Derived Terminalization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/bottleneck-warehousing-terminalization/) - Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2009) “The Terminalization of Supply Chains: Reassessing the Role of Terminals in Port / Hinterland Logistical Relationships”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 165-183. Two types of terminalization can be identified: Bottleneck-derived terminalization. It encompasses a conventional perspective on the role of terminals, in
- [Elements of the Maritime / Land Interface](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/elements-maritime-land-interface/) - The maritime / land interface is a system of interaction between transportation systems and the actors managing and operating them. This continuum includes: Foreland. A maritime space is a space in which a port performs commercial relationships through maritime shipping networks, which represent services offered by maritime shipping companies in terms of port calls, capacity,
- [The Terminalization Concept](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/terminalization-concept/) - Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2009) “The Terminalization of Supply Chains: Reassessing the Role of Terminals in Port / Hinterland Logistical Relationships”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 165-183. Terminalization is a suitable strategy for global supply chains, which have become prevalent in the consumption goods sector, including a
- [Chapter 3.2 - The Digital Transformation of Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/) - Digital transformation (or digitalization) is the integration of information technologies into business processes, changing how they operate and deliver value to their customers.
- [Embedding AI in Port and Terminal Operations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/embedding-ai-port-operations/) - There are four main pillars for artificial intelligence (AI) that can be embedded in port and terminal operations. Predictive AI. Focuses on analyzing trends and patterns that can be used to forecast or detect anomalies using a wide range of statistical methods. It tends to reshape organizational expertise and expand the capabilities to understand factors
- [The Integration of Continuous and Discontinuous Port Hinterlands](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/continuous-discontinuous-port-hinterlands/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom and Rodrigue (2005) and adapted from Monios, J. and G. Wilmsmeier (2012) “Giving a direction to port regionalization”, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 46(10), 1551-1561. The direct hinterland of a seaport (or another terminal) tends to be continuous. More distant hinterland features tend to be discontinuous because hinterland density
- [Impact of 20,000 TEU Vessel Call on Inland Transport](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/400m-vessel-generates-30km-land-transport-vehicles-per-call/) - Container ships of more than 20,000 TEU are operational on the Europe-Far East trade. A port call by such a mega vessel in Antwerp or Rotterdam, two of the largest container ports in Europe, has several implications. First, it typically results in an average call size of 8,000 TEU. Some 70% of that volume is
- [Impacts of Containership Size on Port and Hinterland Traffic](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/impacts-containership-size-port-hinterland-traffic/) - Terminal operations and hinterland access are influenced by containership size since each port call is associated with larger volumes. While the duration of a port call does not change significantly with ship size (less than 24 hours), the volumes handled change radically, increasing the terminal and hinterland footprint. Assuming a 35% turnover per port call,
- [Containerization Growth Factors](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/containerization-growth-factors/) - Several factors can expand or restrict the derived demand for container shipping and ports: Derived. Considers the core derived demand of transportation. Volume growth is primarily driven by economic growth, which increases consumption across all economic sectors. Outsourcing and offshoring, coupled with the complexity of supply chains (multiple actors involved in procurement), provide additional impetus.
- [Chapter 1.1 - Ports, Maritime Shipping and International Trade](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/) - Seaports are affected by a wide range of economic, technological, and geopolitical developments. Shifts in global production and international trade are affecting port activity levels and operations. The demand for port traffic is derived from world trade.
- [Growth Factors of International Trade](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/growth-factors-international-trade/) - Four large trends have facilitated the growth of international trade: Income growth. Economic development has generated income growth, leading the global population why expanded capabilities to consume goods and services. Because a share of goods and services is imported, this is also associated with greater trade. Transport costs. Lower transportation costs, particularly those associated with
- [World Seaborne Trade by Cargo Type, 1970-2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/world-seaborne-trade-cargo-type/) - Source: UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport, various years. Major dry bulks are iron ore, grain, and coal. Weight-wise, raw materials dominate maritime trade as they are ponderous and carried over long distances. Oil, iron ore, coal, and grain accounted for 29% of the ton-miles carried by maritime shipping, while other dry cargoes, which include containers,
- [Chapter 11.2 - Ports and Economic Development](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-and-economic-development/) - Ports are catalysts for economic development as they enable trade and support supply chains. Port investments have economic benefits that can be direct, indirect, and induced.
- [Largest Bunker Fuel Markets, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/largest-bunker-fuel-markets/) - Source: Ship & Bunker 2024. The location of bunkering activity is highly conditioned by geography, with two patterns emerging: Major gateways (centrality). Ships calling at a major port gateway have an opportunity to refuel. Ports such as Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hong Kong, and Ningbo-Zhoushan are each major diversified commercial gateways experiencing a large number of ship
- [Chapter 0.4 - Seaports: Demand and Supply Determinants](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/) - Seaports facilitate local and international maritime trade through the structure and organization of transportation systems. The demand and supply at the port level are defined by several strategic and economic factors.
- [The Largest Available Cruise Ship, 1970-2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/largest-available-cruiseshipn-pax/) - Note: Pure-built cruise ships (early years do not include reconverted liners); based on max capacity as stated by cruise lines. In the early 1970s, Cunard Line entered the cruise market as the growing popularity of international air travel rendered its traditional transatlantic passenger services increasingly unviable. At that time, its flagship vessels had a capacity
- [TEU to GDP Multiplier, 1985-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/teu-to-gdp-multiplier/) - Source: World Bank for GDP growth (In Constant 2015 dollars). UNCTAD and own elaboration for container throughput growth. The multiplier effect is usually defined by the relationship (ratio) between container growth rates (%) in terms of total volumes handled by ports over GDP growth rates (%) for the same year. It reflects fluctuations between growth
- [Value of Containerized Trade, 2020](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/value-containerized-trade/) - Source: UNCTAD. Containerized trade in TEU from UNCTAD Review of Maritime Transport, 2021, Table 1.8. About 70% of the value of international trade is carried by maritime transportation. Of this share, about two-thirds are carried by containers, particularly because most high-value commercial goods are containerized. This implies an average value of trade of about $54,500
- [Global Trade and Container Throughput (1970=100)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/global-trade-container-throughput/) - Source: Population and GDP from World Bank, World Development Indicators. Exports from World Trade Organization. Container port throughput compiled from UNCTAD. Containerization has been the most dynamic physical component of globalization, far outpacing the growth of exports and GDP in value. As globalization intensified from the 1970s, each additional individual, GDP, or export unit was
- [Main Physical Characteristics of ISO Containers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/standardization-advances-containerisation/) - Source: adapted from Container Alliance. The standard 40-foot container is the most commonly used for shipping goods in ocean freight, along with the 20-foot container. The dimensions are usually measured using the imperial system (feet), and both the exterior and interior (usable) dimensions are specified. The standardization of cargo containers ensures containers can be stacked
- [Risk of Hurricanes for Global Container Ports, 2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/hurricanes-global-container-ports/) - Note: High hurricane risk calculated from a point density analysis of the daily location of all hurricanes on a scale of 1 and above on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale observed between 1980 and 2020 (N=135,380). Area of tropical storm formation accounts for 95% of all tropical storms.Source: NOAA, International Best Track Archive for Climate Stewardship
- [Trends in Containership Deployment, 2006-2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/containership-deployment-trends/) - Source: UNCTAD with data provided by MDS Transmodal. Note: 2006=100. Represents the average per port. The deployment of containerships is following three separate trends: Technical. Following the principle of economies of scale and ongoing demand from international trade, the deployed capacity has more than doubled between 2006 and 2025. This is particularly evident in the
- [Trade Intensity by Ocean, 1980-2020](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/trade-intensity-ocean/) - Note: Measured by port TEU activity along oceanic ranges. The Indian Ocean includes the Persian Gulf. Since the 1980s, a significant rebalancing of the intensity of trade by ocean has taken place, particularly over containerized trade. As international trade taking place over the Pacific Ocean increased, the Atlantic Ocean experienced a relative decline in its
- [American Foreign Trade by Maritime Containers, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/american-foreign-trade-maritime-containers/) - Source: adapted from Journal of Commerce. American containerized trade is characterized by an asymmetry between the nature of its imports and exports. North American retailers account for a substantial share of containerized imports, mostly involving finished consumption goods bound to major inland freight distribution centers. The largest importers, such as Wal-Mart, Home Depot, Target, Costco,
- [World’s 20 Largest Exporters and Importers of Merchandise, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/worlds-largest-exporters-importers-goods-services/) - Source: WTO.
- [Merchandise Exports, World and Selected Countries 1970-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/merchandise-exports-world/) - Source: World Bank. From the perspective of export value, international trade has experienced substantial growth since the 1970s, accelerating during the 2000s. This is largely attributable to China's accession to the WTO agreements in late 2001 and the subsequent expansion of Chinese exports. The growth in China's share of global merchandise exports closely matches the
- [Global Hierarchy of Shipping Lanes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/global-hierarchy-shipping-lanes/) - Note: The hierarchy is a function of the amount of trade, the maximum ship size allocated, and the general strategic importance of the route. Mainly reflects container shipping. Shipping lanes reflect the importance of international trade in a hierarchical fashion, with the most important lanes (high tier) associated with a combined flow of international trade
- [Port Performance: Τhe Efficiency Continuum](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/the-port-performance-continuum/) - The efficiency of a port is part of a continuum that includes maritime, terminal, and hinterland operations. These dimensions are interrelated, as inefficiencies in one dimension are likely to affect the others. For instance, issues in terminal operations are most likely to negatively impact both maritime and hinterland operations, resulting in delays. Maritime operations. What
- [Seasonality of Cruise Port Activities in the Mediterranean Sea](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/seasonality-cruise-port-activities-mediterranean-sea-2019/) - Source: MedCruise (2020). MedCruise Statistics 2019. MedCruise: Tenerife. Seasonal variations in cruise activity do not limit the development of a cruise region. The Mediterranean and its adjoining seas have evolved into a highly dynamic cruise region with a highly seasonal pattern of cruise activity. Each month of the May-October period sees traffic shares of 10-12%
- [Objectives and Supply Behavior of Port Service Providers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/supply-behavior-of-port-service-providers/) - From a general macroeconomic perspective, the strategic objectives of the port, and therefore those of the port service providers (which might be the managing entity of the port, a terminal operator, or a hybrid entity), define the overall focus, and thus the level of port services supply. Ports might opt for any of the three
- [Demand Factors for Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/demand-factors-port-services/) - The demand for port services is affected by eight fundamental factors: Price of port service. According to a demand curve D, an increase in the price of a port service leads to a decline in demand at the given port, while a decline in the price leads to an increase in demand. This assumes that
- [Factors Determining the Demand for Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/factors-determinng-the-demand-for-port-services/) - The organization of cargo ports and the volume and type of cargo they handle are shaped by a set of demand factors that are either internal or external to the development of maritime transport systems. Internal factors exert the dominant influence. The flow of the transported goods is at the core of the internal factors; the port’s operation and growth prospects
- [Chapter 0.3 - Seaports: Social and Environmental Value](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-social-and-environmental-value/) - Authors: Dr. Theo Notteboom, Dr. Athanasios Pallis and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue Seaports often suffer from a negative public image, mainly due to their environmental impacts and the disconnection between cities and their activities. 1. The Public Image of Ports The general public often considers port areas desolate, dangerous, dirty, and unattractive, characterized by buildings with
- [Main East and Gulf Coasts Port Infrastructure Developments Associated with the Expansion of the Panama Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/east-gulf-coasts-port-infrastructure-developments-expansion-panama-canal/) - Source: Web Sites and press releases of port authorities. Infrastructure projects were retained on the ground of their potential relation with the Panama Canal expansion. Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2015) "The Legacy and Future of the Panama Canal: From Point of Transit to Transshipment Hub", TR News 296. When the expansion of the Panama
- [The Port as a Value Proposition](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-and-economic-development/port-value-proposition/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and W. Winkelmans (2003) "Dealing with stakeholders in the port planning process", in Dullaert, W., B. Jourquin and J. Polak (eds), Across the border: building upon a quarter of a century of transport research in the Benelux (Antwerp: De Boeck), pp. 249-265. A port generally offers a value proposition to
- [Global Hierarchy of Container Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/global-hierarchy-container-ports/) - Source: UNCTAD. The hierarchy of ports is often measured by the amount of traffic they respectively handle, with larger ports expected to rank higher, which is also referred to as a rank-size distribution. Still, the ordering of the ports also reveals another dimension of this hierarchy: the level of concentration. A hierarchy is usually not
- [Main Physical Elements of a Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/main-physical-elements-port/) - Several fundamental physical elements constitute a port facility: Harbor. A protected area, either naturally or through the construction of structures such as breakwaters, where port activities occur. Depth and navigation are strictly controlled. The inner harbor usually refers to the port area the furthest away from the entrance channel, which has the oldest and most
- [World’s Largest Coastal Cities, 2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/worlds-largest-coastal-cities/) - Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects 2018. PDF Map The geography of cities underlines a strong propensity to locate along the coastline, a pattern associated with several factors. Many coastal areas, particularly deltas, are alluvial plains suitable for agriculture and, therefore, for population concentrations. Coastal access is associated with access to trade networks, which historically
- [Chapter 0.2 - Seaports and the Blue Economy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-economic-value/) - Seaports play a strategic role in supporting the blue economy as they can serve economic catalysts, generate added value and cluster supporting economic activities.
- [Economic Complexity Index (ECI) – Trade, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/global-competitiveness-index/) - Source: Observatory of Economic Complexity. PDF Map The Economic Complexity Index (ECI) - Trade measures the complexity (or sophistication) of a nation's export structure. It is estimated from the standard deviation of the global average of trade diversity (number of different product classes) and ubiquity (number of other countries exporting the same product class). A
- [Chapter 11.4 - Port Safety, Security, and Cybersecurity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/safety-security-and-cybersecurity/) - Ports have to play a more active role in increasing security, tackling crime and cybersecurity. These developments tie in with the primary functioning of ports as international hubs for the flow of goods and information.
- [Chapter 11.3 - Port Planning and Development](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/) - Port planning is a process that defines the future direction of port development, including its services and facilities. It involves data collection and forecasting, stakeholder relations management, and the evaluation of port development plans and projects.
- [Ports and Economic Location Factors](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/ports-and-economic-location-factors/) - According to conventional location theory, manufacturing activities are influenced in their locational choices by three main categories of factors having different considerations (pull effect) for ports: The first is the material inputs of manufacturing, such as energy, raw materials, and land. Since many of these factors involve ponderous resources such as coal, iron ore, grain, and petroleum,
- [Evolution of Traffic Handled by Container Ports, 1970-2020](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/evolution-traffic-handled-container-ports/) - Source: Adapted from Guerrero, D. and J-P Rodrigue (2014) “The Waves of Containerization: Shifts in Global Maritime Transportation”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 35, pp. 151-164. PDF Map 1970 PDF Map 1995 PDF Map 2020 The geographical diffusion of container port growth took place in five major waves (phases) Early trade substitution The first containerized
- [The Blue Economy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-economic-value/the-blue-economy/) - The blue economy encompasses all economic activities based on or related to the ocean, seas, and coasts. This includes a wide variety of economic sectors, such as fisheries and aquaculture, coastal tourism, shipping, ports, and marine renewable energy. Three types of oceanic regions help articulate the ocean economy, with coastal areas representing the most extensively used because of
- [Port Cost Components and Total Port Pricing per TEU (USD), 2012](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/port-cost-components-teu/) - Source: Ports Regulator of South Africa Container Port Tariff Comparator Study (2012). There are four main port cost components dealing with the harbor side and the land side of port operations: Terminal Handling Charges (THC). The fee collected by terminal operators from shipping lines, who in turn recover from shippers the terminal costs (loading or
- [Chapter 6.4 - Port Cold Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/) - The emergence of the cold chain technology has allowed ports to play an active role within these supply chains, particularly with refrigerated containers (reefers).
- [Chapter 6.3 - Containers: The Containerization of Commodities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/) - Containers can carry commodities such as coffee, coal or grain that used to be carried in bulk or breakbulk.
- [Chapter 6.2 - Containers: The Box and Chassis Markets](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/) - The provision and management of containers are assumed by shipping lines and container leasing companies, with the repositioning of empty containers mainly the outcome of imbalances in trade flows.
- [Chapter 5.3 - Ports and Energy Commodities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/) - The global economy rests on the consumption of large energy supplies that need to be provided, transformed, and transported. Ports have been important complexes supplying and distributing energy.
- [Chapter 5.3 - Ports and Energy Commodities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/) - The global economy rests on the consumption of large energy supplies that need to be provided, transformed, and transported. Ports have been important complexes supplying and distributing energy.
- [Global RORO Vessels Market Segments](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/global-ro-ro-vessels-market-segments/) - Source: Based on Skyquest (2022). Global Ro-Ro vessels market. Massachusetts, US. The global RORO vessel market is segmented into various dimensions, including type, capacity, fuel type, application, and region. The market can be mainly divided into ferries, cargo ships, and barges, with their capacity divided into small, medium, and large RORO vessels. Recently, Pure Carriers,
- [World's Largest Cruise Terminal (2025)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/worlds-largest-cruise-terminal-2025/) - Photo Credit: MSC. Located at the world's largest cruise port (PortMiami), the MSC Miami Cruise Terminal is the largest single cruise terminal constructed to date. Operating since April 2025, the facility comprises approximately 492,000 square feet (45,700 m²) of terminal space. The terminal currently has two vessel berths, with infrastructure in place to expand to
- [Largest Cruise Ports by Passengers, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/most-active-cruise-ports-passenger-visits/) - Source: adapted from Cruise Market Watch. The Caribbean and the Mediterranean dominate the list of the largest cruise ports. The two largest are turn ports in southern Florida, which is the world's biggest cruise market. Nassau (Bahamas) is commonly a port of call for most cruises departing from the major turn ports of Florida (Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Port Canaveral).
- [Chapter 7.2 - Cruise Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/) - Ports and destinations have developed an interest in hosting cruise activities. Cruise ports and terminals are transforming, aiming to achieve growth.
- [Port Dimensions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/port-dimensions/) - Four main interelated dimensions help define the role and function of a port: Geography. A port is a site with convenient harbor characteristics (such as a protected bay) that supports a more effective interface between the maritime and land domains than other locations. Although the location of a port does not change, the site can
- [Chapter 8.1 - Port Governance and Reform](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/) - Port governance refers to the adoption and enforcement of rules that govern conduct, authority, and institutional resources, enabling the development and management of port activities to benefit society and the economy.
- [Chapter 9.5 - Entry Barriers in Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/entry-barriers-in-seaports/) - Entry barriers involve economic, regulatory, and locational impediments in seaports for a new actor.
- [Chapter 9.4 - Port Pricing](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/) - Port pricing is subject to the variety of charges and fees that ports and terminals levy on their users.
- [Chapter 9.3 - Port Marketing](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-marketing/) - Marketing is a core function in seaport management, impacting cash flow, profits, traffic, market share, and the overall image of a port.
- [Chapter 9.2 - Intra-Port Competition](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/intra-port-competition/) - Intra-port competition refers to the presence of two or more firms competing to provide the same services in the same port complex.
- [Chapter 10.4 - Port Resilience](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/) - For natural and anthropogenic reasons, ports are subject to disruptions that can impair and even stop activities. The adaptive capacity to recover from disruptions defines the resilience of a port.
- [Chapter 9.1 – Inter-Port Competition](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/) - Ports compete for trades, with terminals as the competing units, logistics, transport, and industrial enterprises as the chain managers of the respective trades with port authorities and port policymakers as co-developers.
- [Chapter 10.1 - Port Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-performance/) - The concept of port performance is formed by two interconnected components; efficiency and effectiveness. Resilience to disruptions emerges as the additional third component.
- [Chapter 11.5 - Port-City Relationships](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/) - Ports and cities are integrated by providing economic opportunities, such as access to global supply chains. Divergence can be observed between a port and its city, leading to conflicts over its role and function. Due to significant technological and economic changes, abandoned port areas have been subject to waterfront redevelopment.
- [Chapter 11.6 - Representing Port Interests](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/representing-port-interests/) - Port-related initiatives are developed to represent the interests of the port industry at the local, national and international levels.
- [Chapter 10.3 - Port Effectiveness](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-effectiveness/) - Port effectiveness refers to the performance of a port in fulfilling the expectations and delivering the desired services to its users.
- [Chapter 10.2 - Port Efficiency](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/) - Port efficiency is a multi-dimensional concept that refers to operational performance, particularly the maximization of the produced output or the production of a given output with limited possible resources.
- [Market Capture Performance Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/market-capture-indicators/) - The capacity of a port to capture an increased market share relates to: Maritime traffic. Throughput levels per type of cargo handled and/or passenger movements served in a given period (year/quarter/month). Vessel traffic. Number of different types of seagoing vessels (cargo and passengers) reaching the port in a given time period. Call size. The average and/or maximum size
- [Container Port Productivity Index, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-performance/container-port-productivity-index/) - PDF Map Source: World Bank. Note: A value of 0 represents a time performance similar to the global average. A value above zero represents a time performance above the global average. A negative value indicates a time performance below the global average. National CPPI average is unweighted. Only ports with a traffic of above 100,000
- [Country and Port Level Liner Shipping Connectivity Index](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/country-port-level-liner-shipping-connectivity-index/) - Source: UNCTAD and MDS Transmodal. No data for landlocked countries. Note: Annual index is the average of the year's four quarters. PDF Map The Liner Shipping Connectivity Index (LSCI) aims to capture the level of integration into the existing liner shipping network by measuring liner shipping connectivity. It can be calculated at both the country
- [Marketing Objectives of Port Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-marketing/port-marketing-objective-attracting-investments/) - Source: Adapted from Parola, F., Pallis, A.A., Risitano, M. & Ferretti, M. (2018). Marketing strategies of port authorities: A multi-dimensional theorisation, Transportation Research Policy and Practice Part A, 111, 199-212. Attracting investments Nearly three-quarters of European Port Authorities are responsible for proceeding autonomously in identifying investors and managing the related concessions. Despite the progressive privatization of port terminals that accelerated
- [Chapter 8.6 - Port Management, Governance and Leadership](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-management-governance-leadership/) - Port leadership is subject to a complex setting related to port governance, the socioeconomic environment, and the main goals of reconciling interest groups.
- [Chapter 8.5 - Green Port Governance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/green-port-governance/) - The greening of port management is a process affecting port authorities safeguarding their license to operate and increasing their economic and environmental competitiveness.
- [Defining the Seaport](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/defining-the-seaport/) - A port can be defined by its geographical and functional elements. The geographical elements include: Situation. The relative position of the port in relation to other ports serviced through shipping networks and its hinterland. This reflects how the port is connected to maritime and inland circulation systems. Site. The physical characteristics of the port, such
- [Intrinsic Cargo Handling Values per Ton](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-labor/intrinsic-cargo-handling-values/) - Source: Huybrechts, M., Meersman, H., Van De Voorde, E., Van Hooydonk, E., Verbeke, A., Winkelmans, W. (2001) “Port competitiveness: an economic and legal analysis of the factors determining the competitiveness of seaports”, Editions De Boeck and Haezendonck, E. and Moeremans, B. (2019). Measuring value tonnes based on direct value added: a new weighted analysis for
- [Chapter 3.5 – Ports and the Circular Economy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/) - Ports can play a role in setting circular supply flow principles in terms of energy, land, and waste management.
- [Chapter 3.3 - Green Supply Chain Management in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/) - Green supply chain management integrates environmental concerns into organizational and operational practices, with ports as key nodes in environmental strategies.
- [Blockchains and Intermodal Transportation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/blockchains-intermodal-transportation/) - A simple intermodal chain typically involves an exporter, an importer, and various carriers and terminals acting as intermediaries. Assuming one full dry container load (reefers or hazardous materials trade would generate more transactions and information), for an intermodal transportation chain to occur, a series of operations and related information flows are required. Although blockchain technology
- [Port Community System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/port-community-system/) - As a digital freight platform, a port community system can be an ad hoc entity built upon available opportunities and existing stakeholder relationships within a port community. These specific applications can be part of the system: Vessel call management. A carrier can issue a berth and anchorage request and receive authorization from the terminal operator.
- [Chapter 7.3 – Tourist Harbors and Marinas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/) - Authors: Dr. Athanasios Pallis, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue and Dr. Theo Notteboom Tourist ports for recreational vessels are a distinctive category of ports where infrastructure, hinterland services, and facilities functionally support the docking of recreational boating and yachting. 1. Tourist Ports There is no formal consensus concerning the definition of marinas or yacht harbours that strictly
- [Major Maritime Ranges](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/major-maritime-ranges/) - Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2020) “The Geography of Maritime Ranges: Interfacing Global Maritime Shipping Networks with Hinterlands”, Geojournal. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-020-10308-y Note: The boundary of many ranges is based on Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ). Several EEZs are subject to contention. The boundaries depicted on this map are functional representations and should not be viewed as anything
- [III. PORTS IN TRANSITION](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/) - Contemporary ports are facing a series of new dynamics that supplement and complement their conventional role. They are part of a geography, and their locations and operations are subject to economic and technological changes. The digital transformation of the industry, green supply chain management, the energy transition, and circular economy concepts have also significantly impacted
- [Chapter 2.3 - Inland Ports / Dry Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/) - A dry port is a rail or a barge terminal that is linked to a maritime terminal with regular inland transport services. They are also called inland ports.
- [Main Governance Models for Inland Ports and Logistics Zones](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/governance-models-inland-ports-logistic-zones/) - Source: Adapted from B. Slack et C. Comtois (2010) “Identification des modeles de gouvernance d’un pole logistique en lien avec la realite quebecoise”, Amenagement d’un pole logistique au Quebec: cadre d’analyse de l’etude de faisabilite, Etude 1.2. Inland ports and their associated logistic zones have a wider range of options than ports in terms of
- [Chapter 2.2 - Ports and Distribution Networks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/) - Ports are nodes within distribution networks that include warehouses and fulfillment centers and provide the management of freight flows.
- [Introduction - A Multifaceted Approach to Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/) - A port is defined as a transit area, a gateway through which goods and people move from and to the sea. It is a place of contact between land and maritime space, a node where ocean and inland transport lines meet and intertwine, an intermodal place of convergence. Ports come in various sizes and functions and cannot be narrowed down to the geographical notion of a delimited spatial area.
- [Services provided at LNG Import Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/services-provided-lng-import-terminals/) - Mainly due to oversupply and low margins, many LNG import terminals have sought to create new demand by introducing new services at traditional LNG import facilities that had been limited to LNG unloading, regasification, and injection into the national gas supply network. These terminals have adapted, or are adapting, their facilities to offer a range of
- [LNG Terminals in Europe (2023)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/lng-terminals-in-europe-2023/) - Source: GIIGNL Annual Report 2023 Edition. Over the past two decades, the European Union has become increasingly reliant on liquefied natural gas (LNG) as a cleaner alternative for propulsion. Beyond the implementation of the relevant IMO rules (i.e., MARPOL Annexe VI), the creation of Emission Control Areas (ECAs) and the "Fit for 55" initiative provided an
- [Natural Gas Spot Prices, United States and Europe (1997-2025)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/natural-gas-spot-prices-united-states-europe/) - Source: Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Note Henry Hub Natural Gas Spot Price, Dollars per Million BTU, Monthly, Not Seasonally Adjusted. EU: Title Transfer Facility (TTF), a trading hub in the Netherlands.
- [Global LNG Trade: Exporting Countries (2023)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/global-lng-trade-exporting-countries/) - Source: International Gas Union (IGU) (2025): 2024 World Energy Report.
- [About](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/about/) - Port Economics, Management and Policy is a project that aims to provide information about the port, shipping, and logistics industry to a wide readership. The authors of the online reference project and book are Theo Notteboom, Athanasios Pallis, and Jean-Paul Rodrigue, collaquially known as the "Charthouse Group". Citation Information cited from this web site should
- [Outcomes of Port Terminal Migration and Relocation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/outcomes-port-terminal-migration-relocation/) - Source: Adapted from Ducruet, C., Notteboom, T. and Slack, B. (2023) Port migration patterns in the global port system since the 1950s. In Port Systems in Global Competition (pp. 122-146). Routledge. The dynamics of port terminal migration and relocation are spatial processes closely related to site characteristics, with costs and benefits being considered. Activity. Two
- [Port Regionalization for Freight and Passenger Functions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/port-regionalization-for-freight-and-passenger-functions/) - Source: Concept developed by T. Notteboom, A. Pallis and J-P Rodrigue. To further expand the concept of port regionalization, a parallel tract for passenger and cruise activities can be considered, which can take place independently or in co-development with freight activities. The setting of cruise services usually involves for a port of call, the use
- [Port Centric Logistics: From Dissociation to Reinsertion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/port-centric-logistics-dissociation-reinsertion/) - Historically, ports and adjacent areas had a pronounced maritime support function with a clearly defined port district composed of docks, piers, warehouses, and other related activities. These are usually referred to as first-tier logistics because they directly support the port’s cargo transfer. Low mechanization levels implied the use of a large workforce manually handling breakbulk
- [World Container Throughput, 1980-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/world-container-throughput/) - Source: Drewry Shipping Consultants/UNCTAD. Note: Throughput is the summation of traffic handled by all container ports. Container throughput encompasses both full and empty containers, which account for 80% and 20% of maritime traffic, respectively. The large-scale adoption of containerization and globalization consistently drove global container port growth rates of 5% to 10% from the 1980s
- [Types of Container Terminal Truck Appointment Systems](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/types-container-terminal-appointment-systems/) - Source: Adapted from Dr. Paul Kent, Monument Economics Group. Soft forms of terminal automation involve gate management and appointment systems. Since many container terminals are located in high-density areas, their vicinity and approaches can be subject to congestion. Further, large container ships tend to increase the number of containers handled per port call and the
- [Balancing Water and Yard Capacity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/balancing-water-and-yard-capacity/) - An important element of container terminal design and configuration concerns the ratio between the water and the yard capacity. The desired outcome is related to the function of the terminal within shipping networks and its hinterland. Therefore, there is no optimal ratio as the ideal design is context-specific. Water capacity lower than yard capacity. This
- [Empty Containers Stacking Area, Maher Container Terminal, Newark](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/empty-containers-stacking-area-maher-terminal/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2010. Most container terminals have an empty stacking area that acts as a pool for exporters. Terminals tend to have an imbalanced container traffic, meaning that for ports that import more full containers than they export, empty containers are brought back from the hinterland to either be made available to local
- [The Configuration of Container Yards](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/configuration-container-yards/) - There are several methods to store and stack containers in a container yard, which is in its simplest form a flat paved surface. There are two fundamental models around which container yards are designed and operated: Linear layouts account for the simplest and least capital-intensive yard operations. At start, containers can be stored on chassis
- [Wheeled Reefer Storage](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/wheeled-reefer-storage/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2019. Gloucester Marine Terminal, Holt Logistics. The simplest way to store reefers at a terminal or distribution center is to use parked chassis connected to reefer plugs. Reefer units are transported using a standard truck, resulting in minimal equipment usage but a higher level of space consumption. Tex is a container
- [Advantages and Disadvantages of Container Transloading](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/advantages-disadvantages-container-transloading/) - Source: adapted from The Tioga Group (2008) Containerized Intermodal Goods Movement Assessment, North American Logistics Chain, Transportation Issues and Trends. Transloading conveys a number of advantages to its users, but also has a few disadvantages: Importers. An important benefit for importers is the reduction of unit transport costs per TEU if the contents of maritime containers
- [Categories of Cruise Ports Fees](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/categories-cruise-ports-fees/)
- [Ports Charges as Tools for Geopolitical Objectives](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/ports-charges-tools-geopolitical-objectives/) - Dr. Athanasios Pallis and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue Seaports are increasingly attracting interest as geopolitical levers, given their typical functionalities in stimulating national and regional industrial development and securing trade. The use of port charges as tools for achieving geopolitical objectives is indicative of this interest. In 2025, the United States and the People’s Republic of
- [Transloading at Major North American Container Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/transloading-major-north-american-container-ports/) - Source: IANA, TTX, Port authorities, PIERS. Note: IPI = Inland Point Intermodal, the movements of ISO containers by rail directly to an inland location. Rail share = IPI + transload. Containers bound to a large continental market such as North America are facing three options. Inland Point Intermodal (IPI). ISO containers are moved directly to
- [Monthly Trade between China and the United States (1985-2025)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/monthly-trade-china-united-states/) - Source: US Census Bureau.
- [US-China Tariffs, 2018-2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/us-china-tariffs/) - Source: Peterson Institute for International Economics.
- [XII. CASE STUDIES](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/) - Overview Optimal Ship Size: Container Ships and Cruise Vessels Competition between the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach Ports and the COVID-19 Pandemic The Port of Savannah Logistics Cluster Nike European Logistics Campus in Belgium The Nicaragua Canal Project Tools for Managing Port Risk and Resilience Port Charges as Tools for Geopolitical Objectives
- [Athanasios Pallis - Short Bio](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/about/short-cv-athanasios-pallis/) - ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3242-5081 Athanasios (Thanos) Pallis is Professor in Port & Shipping Economics and Policy at the Department of Maritime Studies, University of Piraeus, Greece, and holder of the Jean Monnet Chair in European Port Policy. He is a co-director of PortEconomics, and the Vice-Chair of the Port Performance Research Network (PPRN). At the University of
- [Reefer Rack Storage, Porte Oceane Terminal, Le Havre](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/reefer-rack-storage-porte-oceane-terminal-le-havre/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2010. Terminals commonly allocate a portion of their yard space to storing reefers. Porte Oceane terminal started its operations in 2008 and is managed by Terminaux de Normandie. The reefer staking area, which is a completely separate part of the terminal, has 438 plugs available, some of which are at reefer
- [Generations of Cruise Passengers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/generations-of-cruise-passengers/) - Source: CLIA (2024). 2024 State of the Cruise Industry Report. Washington DC: CLIA. The core cruise market is mature adults, with the average age of a cruise traveler being 46, with 42% aged 30-59. Millennials (born 1981-1996) represent 22% of all passengers, and Generation Z (born 1997-2012) represents 14%. Gen X (1965-1980) and Baby Boomers (1946-1964) each have
- [Chapter 7.5 - Cruise Terminal Design and Equipment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/) - Cruise terminals have a unique set of characteristics and operational considerations, as they must handle a large number of passengers and supplies for cruise ships.
- [Luggage Loading through a Cargo Door of a Cruise Ship](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/baggage-loading-cargo-door-cruise-ship/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025 A modern cruise ship can carry well over 4,000 passengers, which results in an equivalent number of luggage pieces (about 1.5 per passenger). During boarding, luggage is collected at the terminal's check-in area, scanned, and sorted by deck and cabin. They are then loaded onto trolleys and brought to the
- [Truck Unloading Ramps for Cruise Stores On-Dock Deliveries](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/truck-unloading-ramp-cruise-stores-on-dock-deliveries/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025. Royal Caribbean Cruise Terminal, Galveston. Most cruise terminals do not have storage capabilities, as deliveries are usually brought directly to the apron by trucks. Consolidation primarily occurs at the distribution center, where orders for a specific cruise are consolidated into truckloads for on-dock delivery during the home port rotation. With
- [Repeat Cruisers: Taking More than One Cruise Per Year](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/repeaters-cruising-more-than-once-per-year/) - Source: Adapted from CLIA (2025); CLIA December 2024 Sentiment, Perception & Intent Research. Washington DC: CLIA. Among international travelers, one in three has taken a cruise, and 82% of those who have cruised express a firm intention to cruise again, a trend that is increasing. Cruise frequency is also on the rise. According to the CLIA December
- [Luxury Cruises](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/luxury-cruise-ships-capacity/) - Source: Cruise Industry News. The luxury segment offers cruises ranging from seven nights and up; per diem rates are among the highest in the industry, the ships are either medium-sized or small, but spacious, and tend to sail worldwide. They offer superb food and service. This travel market has more than tripled in size since
- [Modal Distribution of Cruise Passenger Mobility at Port of Barcelona](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/modal-distribution-cruise-passengers-barcelona/) - Source: PIANC Working Group 152 (2016). Guidelines for Cruise Terminals. Brussels: PIANC.
- [Tonnage and Number of Transits, Panama Canal, 1915-2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/tonnage-number-transits-panama-canal/) - Source: Panama Canal Authority (Autoridad del Canal de Panama). For fiscal years (October to September). A Panama Canal ton is the equivalent of 100 cubic feet of cargo space. From the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 to the early 1980s, the number of transits increased in proportion to the tonnage. This process was
- [Main Trade Routes Using the Panama Canal, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/main-trade-routes-panama-canal/) - Source: Panama Canal Authority. The construction of the Panama Canal in the early 20th century was mainly justified to support and expand trade between the US East and West coasts. In 2024, the Panama Canal handled 210.3 million tons of cargo, but American intercoastal trade accounted for less than 2.5% of this tonnage. Still, about
- [Customs Clearance at a Cruise Terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/customs-clearance-cruise-terminal/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025. Cruise Terminal 25, Galveston. Note: Downtime. Photo taken under the supervision of CBP. Almost all deep-sea cruises involve ports of call outside the jurisdiction of the port of embarkation. Upon return, passengers must clear customs to enter the country of destination, regardless of whether they have left the ship or
- [Luggage Lay-Down Area](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/luggage-lay-down-area/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025. Royal Caribbean Cruise Terminal, Galveston. Luggage lay-down areas consume a substantial amount of space, as thousands of luggage items need to be recovered within a short amount of time. Luggage is picked up from cabins and brought to the lay-down areas, where it is sorted by deck and section. Passengers
- [Cruise Passengers Waiting Area](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/cruise-passengers-waiting-area/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025. Royal Caribbean Cruise Terminal, Galveston. Due to their size and the large number of passengers they house, boarding a cruise ship can take several hours. As cruises are usually boarded by deck and section, with luggage delivered to the cabin, cruise terminals need a waiting area that acts as a
- [Typology of Cruise Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/typology-cruise-ports/) - Several criteria can be used to characterize cruise ports and the role they play in their regional markets, with some of them focusing on the port element associated with the port: Market region. Cruise ports are part of a region with a specific appeal and commonly the destination (itinerary). The region relates to specific demand
- [Total Gross Tonnage by Ship Classes, Royal Caribbean Cruises](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/gross-tonnage-ship-classes-royal-caribbean-cruises/) - Note: Total gross tonnage derived from the average gross tonnage per ship multiplied by the number of ships in class. The Quantum class is subdivided between Quantum ships with a capacity of 4,900 passengers and Quantum Ultra ships with a capacity of 5,500 passengers. Cruise ships are frequently classified by size, associated with a particular
- [Food and Alcohol Provisioning for a 2,000 Passenger 7-Day Cruise](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/food-alcohol-provisioning-passengers-cruise/) - Source: Celebrity Cruises. Cruise lines are managing a complex procurement strategy for their ships, which is based on fundamental variables such as the number of cruisers and the duration of the cruise. The demand pattern can vary by region (diet) and the age composition of the cruise. This leads to consumption estimates in terms of
- [Shanghai Containerized Freight Index (SCFI) and other Freight Rate Indices](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/shanghai-containerized-freight-index-scfi-and-other-freight-rate-indices/) - Source: based on Container News. Several metrics or freight indices exist that can be used for benchmarking spot rates and trends in the container market, for settling up derivative container contracts, and in the context of Index Linked Container Contracts (ILCCs). Index Linked Container Contracts (ILCCs) are long term freight contracts that allow the freight
- [World’s Major Container Ports, 2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/worlds-major-container-ports/) - Source: data collected from port authorities and regional port associations. Only considers ports with traffic above 100,000 TEU. PDF Map Container ports are reflective of the world's commercial geography, particularly since they dominantly handle finished and intermediate goods. Commodities are becoming more prevalent but remain a niche market. Prior to the 1990s, the world's most
- [XI. PORT POLICIES & DEVELOPMENT](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/) - Ports are political and economic tools. There are principles and themes for national and international port and port-related policies, including international initiatives such as emissions control, port security, port labor, and the controversial role of geopolitics in port development. The role of ports in economic development and strategic port planning is a relevant theme. The
- [X. PORT PERFORMANCE](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/) - Since ports operate in a competitive environment, their performance is carefully considered and monitored through a series of indicators. Port performance is composed of efficiency, performing tasks to minimize costs and externalities, and effectiveness, performing tasks that meet the expectations of its users. Performance tends to be an operational factor, while effectiveness is a market
- [IX. PORT COMPETITION](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/) - Ports are evolving within a complex, competitive environment, with various forms of port competition, including inter-port and intra-port competition. Marketing and pricing are crucial parameters for competition. While marketing underlines the relationships that a port establishes with its customers, pricing remains a determining factor. Conditions for enhancing port competition are of strategic importance, including the
- [VIII. PORT GOVERNANCE](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/) - Port governance is the adoption and enforcement of rules that govern conduct, authority, and institutional resources, enabling the development and management of port activities to benefit society and the economy. There is a link between governance and performance, shaped by reforms and models that have influenced the global port sector. Port authorities have a changing
- [VII. PASSENGER PORTS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/) - The global cruise industry involves seagoing transportation and tourism, offering a combination of local destinations accessible through cruise ports and onboard amenities. Ports and destinations have developed into cruise ports and terminals. Tourist ports for recreational vessels are a distinctive category of ports that support recreational boating and yachting. River cruises have emerged as a
- [VI. CONTAINER PORTS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/) - Containerization significantly impacted shipping and ports, forming extensive shipping networks in which seaports play a pivotal role as high connectivity hubs. A container terminal is a specialized facility that handles the transshipment and temporary storage of containers between at least two transportation modes. The provision and management of containers are the responsibility of shipping lines
- [V. BULK & BREAKBULK PORTS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/) - The markets and means of shipping cargo by maritime transportation are the outcome of a specialization. Historically, cargo was mainly carried in breakbulk and in limited quantities. However, the onset of the 20th century led to a surge in the trade of raw materials carried in bulk, particularly mining and energy products. Ports have adapted
- [IV. PORT TERMINALS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/) - Terminals and terminal operators maintain a complex portfolio that is usually acquired through concessions and land leases. Forms of terminal funding and the financialization of terminal operations are also essential to terminal development. Port labor remains a fundamental issue for terminal operations, performance, and overall port competitiveness. It is challenged by changing market requirements, which
- [II. PORTS & HINTERLAND NETWORKS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/) - Ports rely extensively on their hinterland as the main driver of their cargo-handling activities and port-related distribution networks. The development of corridors, the regionalization of port activities, and the setting of inland ports have expanded the conventional port hinterland to complex networks spanning extensive areas. Chapter 2.1 Port Hinterlands, Regionalization and Corridors Chapter 2.2 Ports
- [I. PORTS & SHIPPING NETWORKS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/) - Maritime shipping networks shape contemporary seaports through a complex hierarchy. Maritime shipping and international trade are dynamic systems with the insertion of ports in maritime supply chains. Global trade patterns, consumer preferences, supply chain management, and information technology are fundamental drivers. The crucial role of interoceanic passages in maritime trade networks underlines economic and geopolitical
- [I. PORTS & SHIPPING NETWORKS](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/) - Maritime shipping networks shape contemporary seaports through a complex hierarchy. Maritime shipping and international trade are dynamic systems with the insertion of ports in maritime supply chains. Global trade patterns, consumer preferences, supply chain management, and information technology are fundamental drivers. The crucial role of interoceanic passages in maritime trade networks underlines economic and geopolitical
- [Stacking Density of Container Yard Equipment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/stacking-density-container-yard-equipment/) - Two standard capacity measures can be used to assess container yard capacity: Static capacity. The total capacity of the yard at any given point in time, in terms of how many TEU equivalent can be stored, considering its physical and equipment characteristics. Dynamic capacity. The capacity of the yard over a defined period of time.
- [The First Cruise Vessel, S.S. Prinzessin Victoria (1900)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/the-first-ever-cruise-vessel-s-s-prinzessin-victoria-1900/) - The S.S. Prinzessin Victoria Luise, a passenger vessel with a gross register tonnage (GRT) of 4,409 tons, is credited as the first purpose-built cruise ship. Launched on June 29, 1900, the ship operated under the Hamburg-America Line (Hamburg-Amerikanische Packetfahrt-Actien-Gesellschaft, or HAPAG), which was then the largest shipping company in the world. Her service continued until December
- [Cruise Passenger Age Groups, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-passenger-age-groups-2024/) - Source: CLIA (2025). State of the Cruise Industry Report 2025.
- [Average Cruise Duration](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/average-cruise-duration/) - Source: CLIA (2024), 2023 Global Market Report. Cruise shipping lines strive to maximize their asset utilization by continuously turning over their cruise ships. For instance, a ship typically finishes a weekly cruise early in the morning and begins a new one on the same evening. Within the 8- to 12-hour window between the end of
- [Planning the City with the Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/planning-city-with-port/) - Adapted from: AIVP (2021). Planning the City with the Port Guide of Good Practice.
- [Regional Cruise Ports Associations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/representing-port-interests/regional-cruise-ports-associations/) - The major regional cruise port associations include: MedCruise represents ports and associates in the Mediterranean and its adjoining seas. It is the largest cruise port association in terms of annual cruise passenger movements in its member ports. Membership exceeds 160 ports and spans more than 20 countries in three continents (Europe, Asia, and Africa), and
- [The Port as a Funnel to Economic Development](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-and-economic-development/port-funnel-economic-development/) - Ports can be considered as "funnels" to economic development since they act as a catalyst, enabling three major types of effects: Direct benefits to the port. They involve the revenues that accrue from port activity, arising from various charges levied on ships and cargo for the use of the port. The volume of the port
- [Chapter 0.5 - Emerging Issues in Ports and Maritime Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/emerging-issues-ports-maritime-shipping/) - Authors: Dr. Theo Notteboom, Dr. Athanasios Pallis and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue A multidisciplinary, multisectoral, and global analysis of the contemporary port industry, port governance, and development reveals the dynamics, diversity, and continuous evolution of modern seaports and port-related activities. Several emerging issues are central to port economics, management, and policy. 1. Volatility and Shifts in
- [Number of Reefer Slots per Container Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/number-reefer-slots-container-port/) - Source: Web sites of port authorities and terminal operators. PDF Map The majority of container terminals allocate space for refrigerated containers (reefers), as they account for about 5% of all TEUs handled. This represents a separate and specialized port function that requires equipment such as reefer plugs (power outlets), a power supply, and labor to
- [Top 20 Cruise Brands by Berth Capacity, 2026](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/top-20-cruise-brands/) - Source: Data in various industry reports. The top 20 cruise brands, measured by total berth capacity, continue to upgrade their fleets. The number of berths in each cruise vessel is equal to the number of people who can sleep on board. Comparing the evolution of berth capacity over the last decade, the largest cruise brands
- [Jean-Paul Rodrigue - Short Bio](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/about/short-cv-jean-paul-rodrigue/) - ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0008-1501 Jean-Paul Rodrigue has been a Professor at the Department of Maritime Business Administration at Texas A&M University - Galveston since 2024. Between 1999 and 2023, he was a Professor in the Department of Global Studies & Geography at Hofstra University, New York. His research interests mainly cover the fields of transportation and economics
- [The Man Load Concept](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/man-load/) - Source: adapted from Meeuse, G.C., (1977), Technologische aspecten van het geïntegreerd transport, Nederlands Vervoerswetenschappelijk Instituut: Rijswijk. Cargo can be bundled into pieces or units (horizontal arrows) that dock workers can manipulate. This refers to the man load, except for gases and some liquids that are transported in bulk.
- [Forms of Cargo Transportation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/forms-cargo-transportation/) - Cargo, including maritime cargo, is characterized by the method of transportation and the type of load unit involved. Continuous transport. Loose and unpacked cargo that can be potentially carried in large quantities without interruption and load handling equipment. This applies to solids, gases, and liquids that conveyor belts or pipes can transport from one storage
- [Potential Indicators for Monitoring Port Circular Processes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/monitoring-progress-circular-ports/) - Based on Circular Flanders (2023). Circular ports Monitor. Monitoring progress toward circular goals is at an early stage of documentation, research and implementation. A concrete framework for tracking progress towards a circular port has been developed and tested within the context of Circular Flanders activities. This Circular Ports monitoring framework provides a set of 12 indicators that enable port authorities to track
- [Top Environmental Priorities for the European Port Sector](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/top-10-environmental-priorities/) - Source: European Sea Ports Organisation (2020).ESPO Environmental Report 2020. Brussels: ESPO. The priority ports assigned to individual environmental issues change with time and as conditions evolve. In a European context, port authorities have developed a periodically revised hierarchy of the ten environmental priorities, aiming to produce benchmarking regarding key areas of port environmental performance to
- [A Taxonomy of Strategic Marketing Positioning by Port Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-marketing/strategic-marketing-positioning-port-authorities-taxonomy/) - Source: Adapted from Parola, F., Pallis, A.A., Risitano, M. & Ferretti, M. (2018). Marketing strategies of port authorities: A multi-dimensional theorisation, Transportation Research Policy and Practice Part A, 111, 199-212. A port authority might select among multiple combinations of stakeholders and marketing actions, emphasizing the distinguishing features of its value proposition and market image. Strategic marketing options can be portrayed
- [Cruise Boarding Corridor](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/cruise-boarding-corridor/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025. Royal Caribbean Cruise Terminal, Galveston. Due to the size and length of cruise ships, boarding corridors are often part of cruise terminal design. They allow the transfer between passenger waiting areas and the gangways to board the ship.
- [Waste Reception from a Cruise Ship](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/waste-reception-cruise-ship/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2025. Royal Caribbean Cruise Terminal, Galveston. Cruise ships are subject to strict environmental regulations concerning the disposal of greywater (from sinks, showers, and kitchens) and blackwater (toilets). While graywater can be discharged into the high seas, blackwater requires treatment and proper disposal. In the above photo, wastewater is being collected into
- [Cruise Terminals Operated by Global Ports Holding (GPH), 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/cruise-terminals-operated-gph/) - Source: Global Ports Holding (GPH) website; various sources of cruise passenger movements per port. PDF Map Established in 2004, Global Ports Holding GPH has become the world's largest cruise terminal operator. Its growth is similar to the expansion in the container terminal industry two decades earlier with the setting up of global terminal operators. As
- [The Transport and Handling of Bananas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/handling-bananas/) - The banana is one of the most important perishable commodities in international trade. Cargoes of bananas are carried either in the holds of reefer (refrigerated) vessels or in refrigerated shipping containers. A voyage may take a few days or several weeks from the loading to the discharging port. Over the past decade, the banana trade
- [The Optimal Size of a Container Ship](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/optimal-size-container-ship/) - Scale increases in container vessel size are a well-documented and much-debated topic. The search for economies of scale and the focus on cost control have pushed the container shipping industry towards the deployment of ever-larger containerships. The introduction of ever-larger container vessels of up to 24,000 TEU has resulted in an overall upscaling across the
- [Maximum Container Vessel Size Call per Region (2006-2020)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/maximum-container-vessel-size-calling-per-region/) - Since the mid-2000s, the maximum size of containerships has doubled. In 2020, the biggest vessels in operation exceeded 23.000 TEU capacity. The largest vessels of all operate on the Far East-Europe routes, also calling in ports in the Gulf and the Indian Sub-Continent (ISC). It is on this route that the largest vessel was operating
- [Circular Economy Transition Phases for Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/circular-economy-transition-phases-ports/) - A port can transition to a circular port through a series of phases and the related actions concerning its major inputs (land, capital, energy, equipment, labor) and outputs: Conventional port. Tend to focus on greenfield development projects, and the port is challenged by the reconversion of existing sites that are underused or abandoned. Most of
- [Site of the 2015 Tianjin Port Explosions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/site-2015-tianjin-port-explosions/) - Source: Background map from Google Earth, February 2015. Ports are significant land consumers involving terminal operations and port-centric logistics activities, generating large volumes of cargo flows and the need to store this cargo temporarily. The port of Tianjin is the third-largest in the world in terms of tonnage and the 10th largest in terms of
- [Types of Cruise Gangways](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/types-cruise-gangways/) - Photos: Gangways located at Port Canaveral, U.S., and Port of Venice, Italy. The passenger gangway, commonly referred to as a seaport passenger boarding bridge (SPBB) by the industry, is the means of conveyance used for boarding and disembarking from a ship. In general shipping terms, it refers to a walkway or bridge connecting the vessel
- [Cruise Terminal Configuration](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/cruise-terminal-configuration/) - Source: Adapted from: PIANC Working Group 152 (2016). Guidelines for Cruise Terminals. Brussels: PIANC. Cruise terminals mainly follow four major configurations: A. Wharf cruise terminal. A lateral orientation of the terminal facility that favors the full service of the ships with the terminal building adjacent to the dock. Home (or turn) ports tend to be
- [Yachts Density in Major Markets](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/yachts-density-major-markets/) - Note: Number of AIS positions reported by leisure vessels per grid cell (550m x 550m) between Jan 2015 and Feb 2021. Source: World Bank Group. Yachts are designed to travel long distances over the high seas in comfort and safety. However, they are typically used for short-distance trips in areas offering scenic views and tourist
- [Cruise Passengers Movements in Mediterranean Cruise Ports, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-passengers-visits-mediterranean/) - Source: Data adapted from Cruise Market Watch. Cruise port visits are based on the published itineraries of about 90% of the global cruise shipping capacity (P&O and Aida are not covered). Also include inland locations that are formally part of a cruise itinerary. Regional and seasonal fluctuations in occupancy levels can significantly impact estimates. PDF
- [Cruise Passengers Visits, Caribbean, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/cruise-passengers-visits-caribbean/) - Source: Data adapted from Cruise Market Watch. Cruise port visits are based on the published itineraries of about 90% of the global cruise shipping capacity (P&O and Aida are not covered). Also include inland locations that are formally part of a cruise itinerary. Regional and seasonal fluctuations in occupancy levels can have a notable impact
- [The Global Cruise Port System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/global-cruise-port-system/) - Source: Data adapted from Cruise Market Watch. Cruise port visits are based on the published itineraries of about 90% of the global cruise shipping capacity (P&O and Aida are not covered). Also include inland locations that are formally part of a cruise itinerary. Regional and seasonal fluctuations in occupancy levels can significantly impact estimates. PDF
- [Optimal Ship Size: Container Ships and Cruise Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/optimal-ship-size-container-ships-cruise/) - The optimal ship size is an ongoing concern in the shipping and port industry and associated with (dis)economies of scale with the deployment of larger vessels.
- [Revenue and Expenses per Average Cruiser, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/revenue-expenses-average-cruiser/) - Source: Cruise Market Watch. Note: Excursions only cover those organized by the cruise line. Note: 2023 figures; financial breakdown of typical cruiser worldwide (across all cruise lines); average cruise duration: 8.0 days; median duration: 7.0 days. While in 2023, the average revenue was about $2,202 per cruiser, the associated expenses were $1,862, implying a profit
- [One of the Last Liners, SS France (1969)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/last-liners-ss-france-1969/) - Photo: World Ship Society Port of New York Branch. Launched in 1960 with a length of 316 meters and a capacity of about 1,000 to 2,000 passengers (depending on cabin occupation), the SS France was one of the last of a long series of liners that provided transatlantic services between Europe and North America. However,
- [Chapter 8.4 - Port Clusters](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/) - Ports clusters consist of geographically concentrated and mutually related business units centered around transport, logistics, trade, and industrial production.
- [Market Share of Main Cruise Lines, 2026](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/market-share-main-cruise-lines/) - Source: adapted from Cruise Industry News. Share of worldwide deployed capacity. The cruise line market is characterized by oligopolistic ownership but offers a diversified range of services. It competes fundamentally for the discretionary spending of tourists by offering a variety of brands. Two main cruise lines account for 62% of the market: Carnival and Royal
- [Total Gross Tonnage by Ship Classes: Carnival Cruises](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/total-gross-tonnage-ship-classes-carnival/) - Note: Total gross tonnage derived from the average gross tonnage per ship multiplied by the number of ships in class. Cruise ships are frequently classified by size, associated with a particular commercial cruise line, and not by a more general industry-wide characterization. Carnival Cruises has introduced eight successive cruise ship classes that enhance the quality (with
- [Deployment of the Global Cruise Fleet, 2025](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/map-deployment-global-cruise-fleet/) - Source: adapted from Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA) Resource Deployment Data. Note: The boundaries of cruise regions focus on the main areas of activity.
- [Marina Attributes Influencing Yachtsmen's Experience](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/marinas-attributes-influencing-yachtsmen-experience/) - Source: adapted from Mikulić, J. Krešić, D. and Kožić I. (2015). Critical factors of the maritime yachting tourism experience: An impact-asymmetry analysis of principal components. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 32(1), S30-S41. Five dimensions have the potential to influence the yachtsmen’s overall experience. Three of them have a significantly higher, though asymmetrical, potential influence on
- [Ports as Energy Platforms](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/ports-energy-platforms/) - Ports play three main roles as energy platforms: Energy transport. Benefit from the large volume of energy being transited, either as an export or import platform, which requires substantial storage facilities. Energy transformation. Benefit from the port's proximity to support energy transformation activities whose inputs or outputs are transported by maritime shipping. Energy generation. Benefit
- [Average Capacity of Marinas in Europe, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/average-capacity-marinas-europe/) - Source: ICOMIA-International Council of Marine Industry Associations, (2023). Recreational Boating Industry Statistics 2022. Surrey, UK The average capacity (in terms of the number of berths) of marinas in several countries, such as Croatia, Portugal, Poland, and the Netherlands, is relatively small. Geomorphological characteristics that limit the development of large-scale facilities contribute to this pattern. For
- [Marinas in Europe: Total Berth Capacity per country, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/marinas-europe-total-capacity/) - According to the most detailed relevant database, the International Council of Marine Industry Associations -ICOMIA estimates that the top-10 European countries in terms of total marina capacity offer yachtmen approximately 1.43 million berths, with Sweden (500.000 berths), France (253.000) and Italy (181.000) standing at the top of the relevant list. Sweden records the highest number
- [Terminal Footprint, Selected Container Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/terminal-footprint-selected-container-ports/) - PDF Map Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2025) “A Systemic Analysis of Container Terminal Layouts", Journal of Shipping and Trade, Vol. 10, No. 4. The optimal shape of a container terminal is a rectangle that allows sufficient berthing space and a corresponding yard footprint. However, due to physical and site constraints, such an ideal footprint is rarely
- [Global Estimated Surfaces of Lowest Astronomical Tide](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/global-surfaces-lowest-astronomical-tide/) - Source: Dataset from Poncelet C., Billant G., Saunier A. (2021). Global estimated surfaces of Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT) and Mean Sea Level (MSL). Port facilities are constrained by tidal ranges and must be planned accordingly with nautical infrastructure such as breakwaters and tidal gates. A standard point of reference is the Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT),
- [Bunker Fuel Sales at the Port of Singapore, 2013-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/bunker-fuel-sales-singapore/) - Source: Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore. Singapore is the world's largest bunkering port, where more than 50 million tons of bunkering fuels are sold annually. Its strategic location at the onset of the Strait of Malacca and its extensive petrochemical sectors make it one of the most suitable locations for bunkering. Before the regulations
- [Harbor Types](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/harbor-types/) - Source: adapted from National Geospatial-intelligence Agency, World Port Index. PDF Map The port site refers to its location concerning major maritime attributes such as the coastline and river systems. The harbor type refers to the physical positioning of a port. There are eight major types of harbors, and the above map depicts only large-sized ports:
- [Main Yacht and Boat Manufacturers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/yacht-manufacturers/) - Source: Authors based on various sources. The production of recreational crafts is highly diverse, ranging from series to one-off boats built to order. Advanced engineering, innovative design methodologies, and high-quality craftsmanship are critical aspects of leadership in yacht production. Yacht manufacturers are primarily European firms, particularly in the superyachts sector. France is a leader in
- [Superyachts deliveries by year (2020-2025)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/superyachts-deliveries-2020-2025/) - Sources: Based on Boat International & SuperYacht databases; * 2024 & 2025 estimations While new yacht sales have slowed somewhat and new yacht completions reached a record level in 2024, the total number of yachts over 30 metres under construction, whether sold or not, remains largely unchanged as of early 2025, at 692 yachts. This
- [Bulk Ship Classes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/bulk-ship-classes/) - Bulk carrier classes can be dimensioned to meet the maximum nautical access of specific waterways (seaways, canals, or ports), such as: Malaccamax. Largest vessel that can pass through the Straits of Malacca (20m draft and 300,000 DWT). Suezmax. Largest vessel that can pass through the Suez Canal (24m draft and 240,000 DWT). Panamax. Largest vessel
- [Top-15 Yacht Builders by Total Length of Construction, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/top-yacht-builders-length-construction/) - Source: Based on data reported by Boat International (2025).
- [Top-10 Largest Yachts in the World, 2025 ](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/top-10-largest-yachts-world-2025/) - Source: Based on Boat International data (2025). Built in the UK in 1865, El Mahrousa has carried the title of the largest (in length)yacht in the world unchallenged for a remarkable 119 years. This was the first yacht ever to exceed 150 m. length. Exceeding 160 m. length, the yacht Dubai broke this record in
- [Royal Caribbean Galveston Cruise Terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruise-terminal-design-equipment/royal-caribbean-galveston-cruise-terminal/) - Galveston is the fourth-largest cruise port in the United States (11th globally), handling more than 2.2 million passengers in 2023. It is a drive-to port located in proximity to large Texas metropolitan areas, including Houston, Dallas-Fort Worth, and Austin, with more than two-thirds of passengers driving their own vehicles to the port. There is a
- [Segmentation of the Yacht Market: Propulsion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/segments-yacht-market-propulsion/) - Based on propulsion, the yacht market is segmented into motor, sail and the comparatively minor hybrid/electric. The motor segment dominates, as they are more flexible in their cruising ability at varying conditions and in their ability to move their locations at a faster rate Motorboats remain the most popular form of recreational ocean travel, due
- [Segmentation of the Yacht Market: Yacht Length](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/tourist-harbors-marinas/segments-yacht-market-length/) - Based on length, the key segments of the yacht market are three: The less than 24-meter yachts. Owners of these yachts enjoy the ease of handling and low operating costs, as well as innovative, space-saving, and multifunctional design. Electric and hybrid propulsion methods are on the rise. The 24 - 45 meter yachts. This segment
- [Types of River Cruise Itineraries](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/river-cruises-and-ports/types-river-cruise-itineraries/) - The main river markets include the Rhine/Danube system in Europe, the Mississippi and its tributaries in North America, and the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers in China. Due to navigation limitations such as shallow draft and bridge clearance, river cruise ships are smaller, commonly with 200 guests or less. Due to the scale issue, they have
- [Services Supporting International Trade and the Shipping Business](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/services-supporting-international-trade/) - International trade requires several types of services provided by a number of actors related to the shipping business: Distribution services. Related to the function of transportation and warehousing, which are physical operations performed on trade goods. A carrier, such as a truck or a maritime shipping company, and a terminal operator provide transportation services, while a
- [Treatment of Contaminated Dredged Material](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/treatment-contaminated-dredged-material/) - Photo: Courtesy of the Port of Antwerp. Contaminated dredged material can be treated in situ or ex-situ: In situ (in-place) remediation refers to the cleanup of contaminated soils and groundwater without removing contaminated media from the subsurface, typically through the use of physical and/or chemical processes. Ex-situ remediation involves the removal of contaminated media, either for
- [The Impact of Changing Market Requirements on Dock Labor](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-labor/impact-changing-market-requirements-on-dock-labour/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. (2018) The impact of changing market requirements on dock labour employment systems in northwest European seaports, International Journal of Shipping and Transport Logistics (IJSTL), 10(4), 429-454 https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSTL.2018.093457 There is a series of linkages between the key requirements of market actors and the resulting impact on demands in terms of dock
- [Classification of Geopolitical Developments and Dimensions Affecting Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/geopolitical-developments-dimensions-ports/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T., Haralambides, H., 2025, Seaports in a tense geopolitical environment: key agents or sitting ducks? Maritime Economics & Logistics, 27 (1), 1-24.
- [Types of Port Reforms](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/types-port-reforms/)
- [Private Service Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/private-service-port/) - Source: Adapted from World Bank (2025), Port Reform Toolkit, 3rd edition.
- [Corporatized Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/corporatized-port/) - Source: Adapted from World Bank (2025), Port Reform Toolkit, 3rd edition.
- [Landlord Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/landlord-port/) - Source: Adapted from World Bank (2025), Port Reform Toolkit, 3rd edition.
- [Public Tool Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/public-tool-port/) - Source: Adapted from World Bank (2025), Port Reform Toolkit, 3rd edition.
- [Public Service Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/public-service-port/) - Source: Adapted from World Bank (2025), Port Reform Toolkit, 3rd edition.
- [Main Port Governance Models](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/main-port-governance-models/) - There are four basic governance models for ports in terms of their respective public and private responsibilities. Public service ports. The port authority or a similar public agency has sole ownership and control of all port activities. It is responsible for all investments, operations, and maintenance activities. These ports are increasingly less common. Tool ports.
- [A Broader View of Port Governance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/broader-view-port-governance/) - Source: adapted from Brooks M.R. and Pallis A.A. (2012). Port Governance. In: Talley W.K. (ed.). Maritime Economics – A Blackwell Companion. Blackwell, 232-267. Ports are critical infrastructure for an economy as their management, operations, and development are capital-intensive, consume (public) scarce land use, are associated with externalities (noise, emissions), and involve many stakeholders (port authority, terminal operators, rail operators, trucking companies,
- [A Multi-Modal Port Governance Vision](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/multi-modal-port-governance-vision/) - Source: adapted from Brooks M.R. and Pallis A.A. (2012). Port Governance. In: Talley W.K. (ed.). Maritime Economics – A Blackwell Companion. Blackwell, 232-267. A port governance model that seeks to optimize management, operations, and economic development prospects of the port, while considering social and cultural variables, can be achieved by adopting a concentric approach to engagement, incorporating a multi-modal perspective. The logistics
- [The Port of Portus, Ancient Rome](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/port-portus-ancient-rome/) - Source: Engraved in "Civitates Orbis Terrarum" (IV: Urbium praecipuarum totius mundi, liber quartus, first edition 1588)/Koeman B&H4. The port of Ostia, located at the mouth of the river Tiber, was the main port serving Rome since its foundation and emergence as an imperial city. As the Roman Empire expanded and reached dominance around the Mediterranean, a
- [Loading Break-bulk Cargo, Port of New Orleans, early 20th Century](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/loading-break-bulk-cargo-port-new-orleans-early-20th-century/) - Source: Port of New Orleans. Before containerization, break-bulk cargo had to be manually loaded and unloaded. Several systems were put in place to do so, depending on the type of cargo and how it was packaged. Cargo could be in barrels, crates, or bags, but the maximum size of these load units remained at the
- [Port of Genoa, Late 15th Century](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/port-genoa-late-15th-century/) - Since antiquity, the technology supporting maritime shipping has not changed much. Port sites with a protected area and access to inland trade routes were more prominent. Genoa is a port city that can be traced back to the Roman Empire, granting access to Northern Italy, particularly the Po River valley. In the Middle Ages, Genoa
- [The Demand for Port Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-demand-supply-determinants/demand-port-services/)
- [Nature and Function of Warehousing](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/nature-function-warehousing/) - The nature of warehousing involves several interrelated factors: Buffer. The supply and demand for raw materials, parts, and finished goods can experience substantial fluctuations and cannot be reconciled in real time. The rate of production can be different from the rate of consumption. Therefore, a buffer is required to ensure that they are synchronized in
- [Regional Associations of Ports and Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/representing-port-interests/regional-associations-ports-terminal-operators/) - Regional associations representing port authorities and terminal operators are present on all five continents: Port Management Association of Eastern and Southern Africa (PMAESA). Established in 1973, PMAESA is a non-profit, inter-governmental organization made up of port operators, government ministries, logistics and maritime service providers, and other port and shipping stakeholders from the Eastern, Western, and Southern
- [Typology of Port Cities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/typology-port-cities/) - Source: adapted from Ducruet, C. (2007) “A metageography of port-city relationships”, in: Ports, Cities, and Global Supply Chains, J.J. Wang, D. Olivier, B. Slack, and T. Notteboom, T. (eds.), Aldershot: Ashgate, pp. 157-172. There is a relationship between the size of a port and the size of the metropolitan area it is located in, particularly
- [World Maritime Capitals, 2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/world-maritime-capitals/) - Source: Adapted from Menon Consulting (2022), Maritime Capitals of the World. Note: The lower the score, the higher the ranking. Each selected city was ranked according to a series of criteria within five major categories (Shipping centers, maritime finance and law, ports and logistics, maritime technology, and competitiveness). The index is the unweighted summation of
- [Global Network Connectivities Index, 2016](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/global-network-connectivities-index/) - Source: Adapted from B. Derudder and P.J. Taylor, Data Set 28, Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Research Network. Note: The GNC index ranks a set of global cities based on their connectivity through four categories of advanced producer services (accountancy, advertising, finance, and law). The connectivity is assessed by the number of branch offices of hundreds
- [Impacts of the Baltimore Bridge Collapse on Access to Its Main Port Terminal Facilities, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/baltimore-bridge-collapse/) - On Tuesday, March 26, 2024, around 1:30 AM, the containership MV Dali (neopanamax class of a length of 300 meters and a capacity of 10,000 TEU), due to a major electric power failure, lost steering and collided (an allision since the ship was the only moving object) with a pier of the cross harbor Francis
- [Port Cyberattacks, 2011-2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/safety-security-and-cybersecurity/port-cyberattacks/) - Source: Expanded from Senarak, C. (2024) “Port cyberattacks from 2011 to 2023: a literature review and discussion of selected cases” Marit Econ Logist 26, 105-130. PDF Map A look at the global pattern of cyberattacks on ports reveals four major types of events: Ransomware. The most common type of port cyberattack (69%) involves attempts to
- [Cyber-Resiliency Measures for Information Technologies](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/safety-security-and-cybersecurity/cyber-resiliency-measures/) - Source: Adapted from IAPH (2021) Cybersecurity Guidelines for Ports and Port Facilities, Version 1.0, International Association of Ports and Harbors, Tokyo. The concept of cyber resilience relies on four dimensions supporting the integrity of the information system of an organization: Access control. The range of strategies controlling and regulating access to a specific information technology
- [Vulnerabilities of the Maritime Industry to Cybersecurity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/safety-security-and-cybersecurity/vulnerabilities-maritime-industry-cybersecurity/) - Like many industries, the maritime sector has its own cybersecurity vulnerabilities due to its nature and operations. These involve: Transactions. The maritime industry is transaction-intensive, with documents such as bills of lading and letters of credit shared by a large number of stakeholders (e.g., carriers, cargo owners, terminal operators). All stakeholders may have different information
- [The Port Strategy Matrix](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/the-port-strategy-matrix/) - Source: adapted from Rugman, A., Verbeke, A. (1990), Global Corporate Strategy and Trade Policy, London, Routledge, 168 p. The Port Strategy Matrix identifies four basic strategies that ports can adopt. Port behavior is classified according to the nature of the strategy and the different channels used for implementing this strategy: Nature of the strategy. Can
- [The Adaptive Port Planning Approach](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/adaptive-port-planning/) - Source: adapted from Taneja, P. (2013), The Flexible Port, Volumes 2013-2016 of TRAIL thesis series, ISSN 1566-0788
- [Stakeholder Participation in Port Development Decision Making](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/stakeholder-participation-in-port-development-decision-making/)
- [Classification of Stakeholders Based on Impact and Involvement](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/stakeholders-involvement/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T., Winkelmans, W., 2003, Dealing with stakeholders in the port planning process, in: Dullaert, W., Jourquin, B., Polak, J., Across the border: building upon a quarter of a century of transport research in the Benelux, De Boeck, Antwerp, p. 249-265
- [Stakeholder Groups in a Port Context](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/stakeholder-groups/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T., Winkelmans, W., 2003, Dealing with stakeholders in the port planning process, in: Dullaert, W., Jourquin, B., Polak, J., Across the border: building upon a quarter of a century of transport research in the Benelux, De Boeck, Antwerp, p. 249-265.
- [Port Demand and Capacity Utilization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/port-demand-and-capacity-utilisation/) - Port Capacity Utilisation Source: adapted from Winkelmans, W., Notteboom, T. (2002). Dealing with uncertainty in port capacity planning, Port Technology International, edition 16, Summer 2002, 187-189 Port planning decisions are taken in a world full of uncertainty. Errors in port traffic forecasts can under- or overestimate the demand for new port facilities. Therefore, traffic growth
- [Key Performance Indicators (KPI) vs Objectives and Key Results (OKR)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/okrs-versus-kpis-strategy-map/)
- [Dynamics in Port-Related Planning and Strategy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/dynamics-port-planning-strategy/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T., 2023, Port planning and long-term strategy in a rapidly changing world: Setting the scene, ESPO Annual Conference, European Sea Ports Organisation, Bremen, June 2023. KPI = Key Performance Indicator.
- [Factors Expanding a Port’s Cargo Base](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-and-economic-development/factors-expanding-port-cargo-base/) - There are three main interdependent factors behind the growth of a port's cargo base, particularly when it is containerized. They are reflective of port competition strategies: Hinterland intensification. A port has a market area over which it assumes the dominance of cargo flows. This is often referred to as its main, or fundamental hinterland. Any
- [Impact of the Red Sea Crisis on Port Arrivals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/impact-red-sea-crisis-port-arrivals/) - PDF Map Source: IMF PortWatch. Note: Percentage change based on the difference between average daily ship arrivals between January and November 2023 (reference period) and between December 2023 and June 2024 (crisis period). The Red Sea Crisis refers to events that began in December 2023 and which led to a notable decline in transits through
- [Container Transloading](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/container-transloading/) - Transloading involves transferring cargo from one load unit to another, which is common in containerized transportation. It reduces transportation and inventory costs through destuffing (or stripping) the contents of a load unit and stuffing it in another load unit that is more suitable for the involved transport leg. There are several reasons why container transloading
- [Geopolitics and Foreign Direct Investments in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/geopolitics-foreign-direct-investments-ports/) - Foreign direct investments are controversial since their hold on strategic port facilities may imply a loss of sovereignty and go against long-term national interests. In 1997, HPH was awarded concessions on container facilities on both sides of the Panama Canal (Balboa and Cristobal). The reaction by some was that China was now controlling the canal, even if
- [Potential Climate Change Impacts on Maritime Transportation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/climate-change-and-its-potential-impacts-on-maritime-transportation/) - Source: adapted from National Research Council (2008). Potential Impacts of Climate Change on U.S. Transportation: Transportation Research Board. Elements associated with climate change have an array of potential impacts on transport operations and infrastructures: Heat waves. These impair the construction and maintenance of port infrastructure by shortening and restricting work conditions. The cooling equipment of
- [Maritime Transportation Networks and Vulnerabilities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/maritime-transportation-networks-vulnerabilities/) - Most maritime transport systems are composed of circuitous networks having a nodal hierarchy, including hubs, gateways, and feeders. By their nature, ports are associated with three main types of risks: Concentration. A large share of the traffic can become concentrated in a small number of ports, implying that if a disruption occurs at a hub
- [Risk of Earthquake for Global Container Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/risk-earthquake-global-container-ports/) - Source: Earthquake risk from "The World Map of Natural Hazards", Munchener Ruckversicherungs-Gesellschaft (Munchener Re), Koniginstrasse 107, D-8000 Munchen 40, Germany." Note: MMI stands for Modified Mercalli Intensity scale, which ranks from I (not felt) to XII (extreme catastrophic). Probable MMI is the 20% probability of an earthquake event of a specific scale over 50 years.
- [Proactive and Reactive Mitigation for Port Resilience](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/proactive-reactive-mitigation-port-resilience/) - Source: Adapted from UNCTAD (2022) Building Capacity to Manage Risks and Enhance Resilience: A Guidebook for Ports, UNCTAD/TCS/DTL/INF/2022/3.
- [Cruise Passengers Handled at Caribbean Ports and Path of Atlantic Hurricanes Above Category 3](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/cruise-passengers-caribbean-ports-hurricanes/) - Source: data adapted from Cruise Market Watch. NOAA Hurricane Research Division. Rodrigue, J-P and G.W.Y. Wang (2020) “Cruise Shipping Supply Chains and the Impacts of Disruptions: The Case of the Caribbean”, Research in Transportation Business and Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rtbm.2020.100551 The Caribbean is within a zone of high hurricane activity over the Northwest Atlantic that has been
- [The Concept of Port Resilience](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/resilience-maritime-transportation-systems/) - Source: Adapted and improved from Linkov, I. and J.M. Palma-Oliviera (eds) (2017) Risk and Resilience, Amsterdam: Springer. Resilience tests the capacity of a port in three different ways: Absorptive capacity. The ability of a port or a terminal to absorb a disruption while maintaining a level of service. This implies attributes such as robustness, redundancy,
- [Port Environmental Performance Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/environmental-performance-indicators/)
- [Maximum Containership Size Calling Container Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/maximum-containership-size-calling-container-ports/) - Source: UNCTAD. PDF Map The introduction of ever-larger container vessels has resulted in an overall upscaling across the main east-west trade routes, with large vessels cascading to north-south routes. At the same time, it has resulted in a variance of scale in world port operations. Based on vessel size, three distinctive groups of container ports
- [Logistic Performance Index, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/logistic-performance-index/) - Source: adapted from World Bank, Logistics Performance Index. In November 2007, the World Bank published its first report, which ranked 150 nations according to their logistics performance based on a metric labeled the Logistics Performance Index (LPI). Since then, the LPI has been updated every two years to reflect the evolution of national logistics performance.
- [Risk Profile of Port Customers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-marketing/risk-profile-port-customers-2/) - Source: adapted from Hughes, A.M., 2003, The customer loyalty solution, MacGraw Hill, New York. Port managers can determine the lifetime value of the customers (LTV) and divide them into high, medium, and low lifetime value segments. They can also determine the likelihood that the customer will leave by dividing the customers into three defection classes.
- [Routing Options between Shanghai, Rotterdam and New York](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/routing-options-shanghai-rotterdam/) - Note: Assume a containership cruising speed of 16 knots, no ports of call, and waiting times at Panama and Suez. PDF Map Global maritime shipping is constrained by strategic locations commonly defined as chokepoints. In October 2023, a major conflict between Israel and anti-Israel groups, such as Hamas (Gaza Strip) and Hezbollah (southern Lebanon), became
- [Minimum Efficient Scale (MES)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/intra-port-competition/minimum-efficient-scale/) - Source: Adapted from Kaselimi, E.N., Notteboom, T.E., Pallis, A.A. and Farrell, S., (2011). Minimum Efficient Scale (MES) and preferred scale of container terminals. Research in Transportation Economics, 32(1), 71-80. In economic theory, the Minimum Efficient Scale (MES) is a concept that is particularly challenging to define. One possible way to define MES in a port context
- [Dimensions of Inter-Port Competition](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/dimensions-inter-port-competition/) - Ports can compete over three main dimensions: Shipping network (foreland). Ports strive to enhance their access and connectivity to the global shipping network, which is often linked to opportunities to attract customers and cargo. The goal is to portray the port as a favorable location with multiplying effects on maritime connectivity. In such a network,
- [Cooperation of Port Authorities: A Typology](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/cooperation-port-authorities-typology/) - Adapted from: Brooks M.R., McCalla, R., Pallis A.A., and Van der Lugt L. (2010). Cooperation and Coordination in Strategic Port Management: The Case of Atlantic Canada’s Ports. Canadian Journal of Transportation, 4(1), 29-42. Examples of port cooperation provide a typology or classification of cooperation practices. As a first division, differentiation between formal and informal cooperation is noted. Formal
- [Cooperation and Coordination in Strategic Port Management](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/port-cooperation-coordination-strategic-management/) - Source: adapted from Brooks M.R., McCalla, R., Pallis A.A., and van der Lugt L. (2010). Cooperation and Coordination in Strategic Port Management: The Case of Atlantic Canada’s Ports. Canadian Journal of Transportation, 4(1), 29-42. There are two types of competitive strategies for ports: The concept of cooperation between different ports. The concept of improving the integration and coordination
- [The Port Governance Reform Process](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-reform-process/) - Source: adapted from Brooks M.R. and Pallis A.A. (2008). Assessing port governance models: Process and performance components. Maritime Policy and Management, 35(4), 411-432. Port governance reform is a complex process that unfolds and is adjusted over time. Relevant policy actors decide to initiate change in the light of a specific economic environment, having a vision of (or objective for)
- [Port Governance Tasks: Management of Concession Agreements](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-tasks-management-concession-agreements/) - Concessions of rights to operate and provide port services, with the public sector retaining port ownership and authority, have been the most common practice worldwide. Commonly, concessions are granted for specific terminals (i.e. container terminal, cruise terminal) and for providing specific services. Beyond determining the main terminal characteristics such as size, location, waterside and landside
- [Port Governance Tasks: Management of Emerging Issues](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-tasks-management-emerging-issues/) - The management of emerging issues and the efficient and effective adaptation of port organization and operations represent key port governance activities. Within a dynamic economic context marked by business model adjustments by carriers, transportation companies along the supply chains, as well as port terminal operators and other service providers, the themes of this group expand.
- [Port Governance Tasks: Market and Price Regulations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-tasks-market-price-regulations/) - Ports require the performance of several tasks related to market conditions, the tariffs applied, and the rules governing sub-concessions to service providers. Public authorities (national, port level) might have a major or minor role in setting various tariffs applying at the port (e.g. infrastructure, service charges). Depending on the governance model, private service providers may
- [Port Governance Tasks: Technical Management of the Port Area](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-tasks-technical-management-of-port-areas/) - Port governance includes decisions regarding the various responsibilities linked to the technical management of the port area. The operation of a port is subject to decisions related to the land used by the port (e.g. land assigned to the port, acquisitions), the type of use for parts of this land (e.g. type of cargoes/passengers to
- [Port Governance Tasks: Public Authority Functions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-tasks-public-authority-functions/) - The management of port operations is subject to a number of functions that are commonly undertaken by public authorities. Depending on the port governance model, these authorities might be national, regional, or at the port level. Some of the functions might also be undertaken by the harbor master or the coastguard. Private entities tend to
- [Trade, Transport, and Port Governance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/trade-transport-port-governance/) - The economic context, defined by trends in trade and transport, is vital for port governance. The objectives of port governance are determined within a specific economic context, where trends in global trade, the facilitation of this trade, as well as transport and related agreements and logistics, inform the decisions of policymakers at the national, regional, or
- [Portainers or Ship-to-Shore (STS) Container Cranes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/portainers-ship-to-shore-container-cranes/) - The largest modern container cranes are classified as ultra-post-Panamax, some having a 120-ton load capacity. The basic structure of portainers consists of the following parts: Main boom. The part that hangs over the ship and is vertically retractable. For the stability of the spreader, the main boom must be as close to the maximum stacking
- [Commodity Group and Containerization Level](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/commodity-group-and-containerization-level/) - Containerization is typically commodity-dependent, resulting in a wide range of existing and potential containerization levels. Even within the same SITC (Standard International Trade Classification) groups, levels of containerization differ. The containerization level in several types of manufactured goods is very high since this represents the conventional base of the container trade. Although several factors support containerization, its
- [Financial Performance Evaluation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/financial-perfromance-indicators/) - The financial statement accounts of ports provide the data for a standardized financial evaluation. The most common financial outcomes monitored relate to the profitability prospects and growth dynamics of port companies. Widely employed financial performance indicators include revenue, profit margin, and growth ratios, including : Revenue trend. Revenue growth changes. Gross profit margin. Focusing on the operational
- [The Disadvantages of Scale in Maritime Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/disadvantages-scale-maritime-shipping/) - Although economies of scale in container shipping convey several advantages, such as lower unit costs and more capacity, they can also generate externalities for a port. They include: Externalities of maritime and port operations. The size and draft requirements of larger ships reduce the number of ports able to accommodate them, implying fewer options. This
- [Impact of Organised Crime on Port Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/safety-security-and-cybersecurity/impact-of-organised-crime-on-port-performance/) - Source: Adapted from: Vanlaer N., et al. (2022), 100% Operational! An organizational resilience perspective on ports as critical infrastructures, Case Studies on Transport Policy, 10, 1, 57-65, Targeting either illicit trade or capturing the governance of ports via various tactics, organised crime groups pose a significant threat to port performance by exerting disruptive influence across
- [The Three Pilars of Cruising](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/the-three-pilars-of-cruising/)
- [Average Cruise Passenger Age Group](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/average-cruise-passenger-age-group/) - Source: CLIA (2024). 2023 Global Passenger Report. Washington DC: CLIA. Cruise lines are expanding their target audience, attracting younger age groups, including families and youngsters. While it used to be a market for retired customers (65 years and older), the average age of cruisers was 46.7 in 2018. Just 13% were over 70 years old, and
- [Terminal Intermodal Logistica de Hidalgo (TILH)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/terminal-intermodal-logistica-de-hidalgo-tilh/) - Photo: Courtesy of TILH, 2013. The concept of port regionalization incites ports and terminal operators to look at the hinterland to support their core terminal business. Such a process takes different forms based on market conditions, the availability of land, and the infrastructure available to connect a port with inland intermodal centers. Terminal Intermodal Logistica de Hidalgo
- [Number of Port Calls by RORO Ships, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/number-port-calls-roro-ships/) - Source: Based on data available at ports' websites and related RORO Market Reports. Note: Port calls do not account for ship size, which could vary. PDF Map The number of port calls by RORO car carriers shows a large concentration level, which is a function of car manufacturing and market demand. Two significant clusters of
- [The Barge Carrier Concept](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/the-barge-carrier-concept/) - When reaching a deconsolidation port of call, barges are launched from the mothership for the remaining part of their journey. The barge carrier concept can broadly be divided into two categories, the "Lighter Aboard Ship" (LASH) and "Barge Container Carrier" (BACO). Other barge carrier types include Heavy Lift vessels and Naval Auxiliary vessels. Two further
- [The Largest Available Containership, 1970-2024 (in TEUs)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/largest-available-containership-teus/) - The principle of economies of scale is fundamental to maritime transportation economics, as the larger the ship, the lower the cost per unit transported. This trend has been particularly apparent in bulk and containerized shipping. For instance, the evolution of containerization, as indicated by the size of the largest available containership, has been a stepwise process.
- [Average Monthly Container Traffic Share, Selected Ports, 2005-2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/average-monthly-container-traffic-share-selected-ports/) - Source: Port Authorities. Note: The grey area represents one standard deviation from the average. As a derived demand, container traffic is subject to seasonal fluctuations due to retail and manufacturing cycles. Generally, the peak season of port activity is between May and November, and the through season is between December and March, with February being
- [Examples of Largest Container Vessels (Unit Capacity > 20,000 TEU)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/largest-container-vessels/)
- [World’s Largest Maritime Container Shipping Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/largest-maritime-container-shipping-operators/) - Source: Alphaliner. Current situation slot capacities of the fleets operated by the top 100 container lines (in TEU) - Source: Alphaliner The global container shipping business has a high concentration level, with the top 10 operators accounting for more than 60% of the total capacity. While Maersk and MSC are the two largest container shipping
- [Geopolitics and the De-Risking Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/trading-with-friends-friendshoring-and-ethical-sourcing/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and Haralambides, H. (2025). Seaports in a tense geopolitical environment: key agents or sitting ducks? Maritime Economics & Logistics, 27(1), 1-24. Reshoring. Bringing activities back to the country/region. Nearshoring. Moving activities in a neighboring country. Friendshoring. Moving activities to a country with similar norms and values and/or political system. Offshoring.
- [Types of Port Site Developments](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/types-port-site-developments/) - A port/terminal development project can take place in several contexts related to the level of completion of the site: Undeveloped site. The port authority or a responsible public agency can provide a suitable undeveloped site with existing or available nautical access. The site is expected to be zoned for port development and clearly demarcated. All
- [Port and Maritime Industry Finance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/port-maritime-industry-finance/) - Source: Adapted from Stopford, M. (1997 & 2009) Maritime Economics, 2nd & 3rd edition, London: Routledge. The financing of the port and shipping industries comes from several sources, but it is commonly the responsibility of specialized brokers with close relationships with the industry. The income is used to directly finance the operational and capital requirements
- [Typology of Global Port Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/typology-global-port-operators/) - The rise of and diversity in global terminal operators has a structural impact on the port industry. As terminal operators move towards better integration of terminals in supply chains and shipping lines, they acquire container terminal assets worldwide. Leading terminal operating companies are developing diverging strategies toward controlling larger parts of the supply chain. Terminal
- [Forms of Port Terminal Privatization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/forms-port-terminal-privatization/) - There are several forms of port terminal privatization (not to be confused with port privatization). Sale. The outright sale of a terminal facility to a private operator, which assumes all responsibilities of management, repair, and maintenance. The condition is that the facility retains its function and cannot be converted to other uses without the approval
- [Greenfields, Brownfields and Related Terms](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/greenfields-brownfields-and-related-terms/) - Land available for port development can fall into five main categories: A greenfield is pristine land that has never been developed, such as woodland, wetland, or farmland. However, farmland might not be considered greenfields if pesticides and herbicides have been used intensively for a longer period of time. A brownfield is a property of which
- [Impediments and Delaying Factors of Port Terminal Migration and Relocation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/impediments-and-delaying-factors-of-port-terminal-migration-and-relocation/) - Source: compiled and adapted from Notteboom (2016), The adaptive capacity of container ports in an era of mega vessels: the case of upstream seaports Antwerp and Hamburg, Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 295-309
- [Digitization and Digitalization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/digitization-and-digitalization/)
- [The Concept of Maritime Range](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/concept-maritime-range/) - A maritime range is a functional area that includes a series of ports jointly defined by their hinterland when inland markets are serviced and by their foreland when transshipment is taking place. In a maritime range, ports can compete and complement each other, and when the range extends across several countries, they can share common
- [Maritime Zones and Legal Boundaries](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/maritime-zones-legal-boundaries/) - Sea areas nearby nations are divided into maritime zones representing internationally recognized legal boundaries. The most important marker from which other boundaries are derived is the baseline, which is the mean low tide line. Many seaports are located in close proximity to the baseline. From this marker, three areas can be identified by their level
- [A Multi-Layer Approach to Port Dynamics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/multi-layer-approach-port-dynamics/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2007) “Re-assessing Port-Hinterland Relationships in the Context of Global Supply Chains”, in J. Wang et al. (eds) Inserting Port-Cities in Global Supply Chains, London: Ashgate. Since ports are the nexus of maritime and inland transport systems, port hinterlands are strongly shaped by port dynamics, particularly over four
- [Basic Requirements for Dry Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/basic-requirements-dry-ports/) - A rail-based dry port (or inland port) has three basic requirements to fulfill a relevant commercial role: an intermodal terminal, the presence of logistics activities, and a corridor to a gateway that offers connectivity to external markets. Economies of scale (massification of flows) and economies of agglomeration provide multiplying effects. Particularly, a high-capacity and frequently
- [Daily Transits at Selected Strategic Maritime Passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/daily-transits-selected-strategic-maritime-passages/) - Source: IMF PortWatch. Based on AIS data. Each observation is averaged over a week. Disruptions in maritime shipping can be noticed at several levels, from the individual port to the global shipping network. One simple measure is the number of transits at selected strategic locations and associate these changes with specific economic and political events.
- [World’s Main Intermediate Hubs and Markets](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/worlds-intermediate-hubs-markets/) - Source: adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants and web sites of port authorities.Note: TI refers to transshipment incidence. Several transshipment figures are estimates and based on an average of figures available since 2008 to account for missing data and annual fluctuations in transshipment volumes. PDF Map With the growth of long-distance containerized trade, intermediate hubs grew in importance
- [Commodity Index, Baltic Dry Index and Container Shipping Rates, 2000-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/commodity-index-baltic-dry-index-container-shipping-rates/) - Source: IMF, Baltic Exchange, UNCTAD and Shanghai Shipping Exchange. 2000=100. The IMF All Commodity Index (IMF-ACI) is maintained by the International Monetary Fund, which tracks prices of internationally traded primary commodities, such as metals, foodstuffs, beverages, agricultural goods, and fuels. The Baltic Dry Index (BDI) is an assessment of the average price to ship raw materials, such
- [Bulk and Containerized Commodity Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/bulk-and-containerized-commodity-chains/) - The “First Mile” of bulk commodity chains (bulk shipping) is assumed by dedicated consolidation centers; one center per type of commodity (grain, coal, potash, petroleum, etc.). These centers have specialized storage facilities for the commodity as well as the terminal equipment for transfer. Additionally, this requires the usage of specialized transport equipment for hinterland movements
- [Largest RORO Carriers, 2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/largest-roro-carriers/) - Source: Clarksons Research. The RORO industry is characterized by a high concentration level, with the top 10 carriers accounting for 78% of the capacity in CEU.
- [Blockage of the Suez Canal, March 2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/suez-canal-blockage-2021/) - On March 23, 2021, the containership Ever Given ran aground in the Suez Canal. The vessel's bow got lodged in the eastern bank of the Canal. The Ever Given measures 400m long with a beam of 59m and a capacity of over 20,000 TEU. Since the 2016 investment program, large sections of the Suez Canal
- [RORO Fleet Load Capacity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/roro-fleet-load-capacity/) - At the beginning of 2025, the global RORO fleet's median load capacity was 6.200 CEU (Car Equivalent Units), with just less than 200 vessels having a carrying capacity of 7.000 CEU or more. Seeking the benefits of economies of scale, car carriers have recently built some of the largest Pure Car and Truck Carriers (PCTCs).
- [Global Merchandise Exports and Container Throughput, 1980-2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/global-merchandise-exports-container-throughput/) - Source: World Bank and Drewry Shipping Consultants/UNCTAD. There is a high correlation between global merchandise exports and global container throughput (R square of 0.97), which is indicative of the derived demand function of global container shipping. Although this relation is proportional and usually follows a linear trajectory, there are fluctuations in this proportionality and a
- [Foreland and Hinterland-Based Regionalization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/foreland-hinterland-based-regionalization/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2010) "Foreland-Based Regionalization: Integrating Intermediate Hubs with Port Hinterlands", Research in Transportation Economics, Vol. 27, pp. 19-29. The concept of foreland-based regionalization refers to integrating intermediate hubs in regional shipping networks, where the maritime foreland of the intermediate hub functions as a hinterland. For reasons like high
- [Connectivity Pattern of the World’s Major Maritime Bottlenecks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/connectivity-pattern-worlds-major-maritime-bottlenecks/) - TEU figures are for 2020 and relate to the total container traffic of selected nearby ports interacting with the bottleneck. TI refers to transshipment incidence; the share of all the transshipped containers handled by the port system. Bottlenecks (or chokepoints) of global maritime shipping have been, for decades, the object of geostrategic considerations as obligatory points of
- [Cost leadership and differentiation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/cost-leadership-differentiation/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. (2004) Container shipping and ports: an overview, The Review of Network Economics, 3(2), pp. 86-106.
- [Piraeus Car Terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/piraeus-car-terminal-2/)
- [A Large Car Terminal: Bastenaken Terminal Zeebrugge](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/large-car-terminal/) - Source: adapted from ICO and Port of Zeebrugge websites. The port of Zeebrugge is Europe's largest port for handling new cars. In 2019, some 3 million cars were handled at several terminals in the inner port area. The Bastenaken terminal is one of the largest and most modern facilities and is operated by ICO (International
- [Tank Storage Capacity and Number of Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/tank-storage-capacity-number-terminals/)
- [Container Traffic Handled by the Panama Canal Railway, 2001-2014](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-panama-canal-railway/) - In units. Source: Panama Canal Railway Company. The initial Panama Railway was opened in 1855 as a venture to connect the shipping services of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. However, with the construction of the Panama Canal, a new 47-mile (75-km) path for the railway was designed, and operations began in 1912. When a highway
- [From Breakbulk to Containerized Commodities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/containerized-commodities/) - Most commodities used to be shipped and handled as breakbulk (i.e. loose or palletized boxes and bags). However, the past decades have brought rapid containerization of these commodities. Containers are stripped at specialized terminals and warehousing facilities using forklifts, specialized grippers, and conveyor systems. In some cases, like for coffee, the container is tilted to
- [Maritime Supply Chains Options for Green Hydrogen](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/maritime-supply-chains-options-for-green-hydrogen/) - Note: The graph assumes H2 use by the end user. LH2, CH2 and ammonia can in many cases also directly serve as input or feedstock for the end user without prior transformation to H2. Source: adapted from Notteboom, T., Haralambides, H., 2023, Seaports as green hydrogen hubs: advances, opportunities and challenges in Europe, Maritime Economics
- [Key Requirements for Ports to Serve as Green Hydrogen Hubs](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/key-requirements-for-ports-to-serve-as-green-hydrogen-hubs/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T., Haralambides, H., 2023, Seaports as green hydrogen hubs: advances, opportunities and challenges in Europe, Maritime Economics and Logistics, 25 (1), 1-27 There is still a considerable production cost difference between green hydrogen and fossil fuels. A key factor in bringing green hydrogen costs down, ensuring its availability on a large
- [Annual Precipitation in the Panama Canal Watershed, 1950-2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/annual-precipitation-panama-canal-watershed/) - Source: Panama Canal Authority. The Panama Canal depends on an ample supply of freshwater captured by its watershed and stored in retention reservoirs such as Lake Gatun, usually during the rainy season, which is between May and December. A look at the precipitation trend underlines fluctuations around an average of about 2.6 meters (2634 millimeters)
- [Typical Cross-Sections of Gravity Quay Walls](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/typical-cross-section-quay-wall/) - MSL: Median Sea Level. There are three major types of gravity quay walls: Concrete block walls. Consists of heavy precast mass concrete blocks. This type of construction is suitable where a rock foundation exists since differential settlement cannot easily be accommodated by this form of gravity wall. Blocks are placed vertically above each other. L-walls. Stable
- [Vertical Integration for Selected Major Container Shipping Lines](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/vertical-integration-selected-major-container-shipping-lines/) - Many of the largest carriers have moved beyond their shipping activities into terminal operations (mainly through concessions) and added-value logistics. This represents a paradigm shift in which vertical integration leads to new ventures and business opportunities that support the core function of maritime shipping.
- [Alliances in Container Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/alliances-container-shipping/) - Source: updated from Notteboom, T. (2012), Chapter 12: Container shipping, in: Talley, W. (ed.), The Blackwell Companion to Maritime Economics, Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, ISBN: 978-1-4443-3024-3, pp. 230-262. Operational cooperation between container shipping companies comes in many forms, ranging from slot-chartering and vessel-sharing agreements to multi-trade strategic alliances. The first strategic alliances between shipping lines date back
- [The Strategic Transformation of Maersk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/a-p-moller-maersk-transformation-from-a-diversified-conglomerate-to-a-focused-and-integrated-global-logistics-company/) - Transformation from a diversified conglomerate to a focused and integrated global logistics company.
- [Main Components of the Panama Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/main-components-panama-canal/) - PDF Map The Panama Canal system is composed of two lock systems, the old locks (completed in 1914) and the expanded locks (completed in 2016 as an expansion of the canal with two new locks). On the Atlantic side, the Gatun (1914) and Agua Clara (2016) locks link the Caribbean Sea and Lake Gatun. On the
- [The Hanjin Shipping Bankruptcy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/hanjin-shipping-bankruptcy/) - By the early 2010s, the shipping industry was facing overcapacity, which was depressing rates and impairing the profitability of shipping lines. Further, almost every major shipping line was ordering larger containerships, caught in a vicious circle of trying to boost profitability with economies of scale. Capacity was growing faster than demand., undermining the profitability of
- [Toll Revenue, Panama Canal, 2000-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/toll-revenue-panama-canal/) - Source: Panama Canal Authority. Canal transit services include booking, inspection, security charges, appointment (for a reserved transit slot), and tug assistance fees. Tolls account for about 70% of the revenue of the Panama Canal Authority (PCA), with another 25% related to canal transit services. Since its formal autonomy in January 2000, the tolls levied by
- [Construction of Maasvlakte 2, Rotterdam](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/construction-maasvlakte-2-rotterdam/) - Photo: Port of Rotterdam. Source: adapted from Port of Rotterdam website and Van der Plas, R. (2013). Maasvlakte 2, providing ample space for the future, Port Technology International, issue 58, p. 20-22. Maasvlakte 2 is a major civil engineering project in the port of Rotterdam (the Netherlands) involving the construction of a new port area and
- [Panama Canal Toll Structure](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/panama-canal-toll-structure/) - Source: Panama Canal Authority. Note: Tolls are for January 2025. To levy tolls on ships transiting the canal, the Panama Canal Authority has a toll structure that considers ship size and class, including a distinction between non-containerized and containerized ships. For non-containerized ships: TOLL = Fixed transit fee + Capacity tariff + Miscellaneous fees. Fixed
- [Container Traffic Handled at the Main Panamanian Ports, 1995-2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-panamanian-ports/) - Source: Autoridad Maritima de Panama. Prior to the mid-1990s, Panama was handling limited container volumes, most of them related to domestic demand, such as for the Colon Free Zone. These volumes did not exceed 200,000 TEUs per year and were mainly handled by the ports of Colon and Cristobal on the Caribbean coast. The subsequent
- [Port of Balboa, Panama](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/port-balboa-panama/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2011. The Port of Balboa, operated by Hutchinson Port Holdings (HPH), is an important transshipment hub on the Pacific side of the Panama Canal. It handled 2.5 million TEUs in 2018, but the port is close to capacity and has limited expansion options. The ship in the middle (blue color) is
- [Port Authority Marketing Strategies and Stakeholder Types](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-marketing/port-authority-marketing-strategies-stakeholder-types/) - Adapted from: Parola, F., Pallis, A.A., Risitano, M. and Ferretti, M. (2016). Marketing strategies of Port Authorities: A multi-dimensional framework. Paper presented at EURAM Conference 2016, 1-4 June, Paris, France. The role and function of most port authorities have evolved. In many cases, the conventional role of the operator has been discarded and replaced with concessions
- [Emerging Paradigm in the Role of Port Authorities within their Port Regions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/emerging-paradigm-role-port-authorities-port-regions/) - Source: adapted from P. Verhoeven (2010) ‘A review of port authority functions: towards a renaissance?’, Maritime Policy & Management, Vol. 37, No. 3, pp.247–270. Conventionally, a port authority acts as a landlord, a regulator, and an operator: As a landlord, a port authority manages the port assets under its jurisdiction. This commonly concerns the provision of infrastructure
- [Port Governance Tasks: Port Policy Formation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-tasks-port-policy-formation/) - The formulation of port policy incorporates several port governance tasks. The definition, development, and adoption of a (national) port policy are just some of them. The adopted port policy has to be implemented via a number of activities, such as the coordination of actors involved in the sector; the coordination of transport and other policies
- [The Shipment of Forest Products](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/shipment-forest-products/) - The specialized forest products shipping industry is characterized by a limited number of players, such as Gearbulk. As far as trade lanes are concerned, well-established exporters of forest products are located in the Pacific-Northwest, Eastern Canada, and Scandinavia. However, competition is heating up from suppliers in South America (Brazil and Chile), Russia, and China. Major
- [Diffusion of Key Port Terminal Automation Technologies](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/diffusion-port-terminal-automation-technologies/) - The main types of container port terminal automation in terms of their current level of diffusion include: Automated decision-making (yard management). Account for the earliest implementations of automation since they improve terminal managerial aspects and the performance of existing assets without automating them. This can involve berth planning, where vessels are more effectively assigned and scheduled to use
- [Outbound and Inbound Traffic at Car Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/car-terminal-outbound-traffic/) - Source: Expanded from: Beškovnik B. & Zanne M. (2018). Business process re-engineering of a maritime car terminal: Changing from inbound to outbound intermodal node in Finished Vehicle Logistics (FVL). Polish Maritime Research, Vol. 25(3), 54-61. Note: Some car terminals in Chinese (Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta) and European ports (Rhine Basin) also use barges
- [Direct and Competitive Types of Terminal Awarding Procedures](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/direct-competitive-types-terminal-awarding-procedures/) - Source: Adapted from Theys C., Notteboom T.E., Pallis A.A., & de Langen P.W. (2010). The economics behind the awarding of terminals in seaports: A research agenda. Research in Transport Economics, 27, 10-18.
- [Changes in Global Trade Flows](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/changes-global-trade-flows/) - Source: Seaborne trade data adapted from UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport. Prior to the 1970s, global trade flows were dominated by three major poles, North America, Western Europe, and the developing economies of East Asia (Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan). A trade dichotomy was observed between advanced (developed) and developing economies as raw materials mainly flowed
- [World’s Most Traded Goods and Lead Exporter, 2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/worlds-most-traded-goods-lead-exporter/) - Source: Observatory of Economic Complexity. HS4 Composition (Harmonized System, four digits). Many of the world's most traded goods require specialized maritime transport conveyances. The first two most important goods are crude and refined petroleum, which requires tanker ships and specialized terminals with tank farms. Cars are also among the most traded goods in terms of
- [Distribution of Terminal Equity Stakes by Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/distribution-terminal-equity-stakes-terminal-operators/) - Source: Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2022) “Maritime Container Terminal Infrastructure, Network Corporatization, and Global Terminal Operators: Implications for International Business Policy”, Journal of International Business Policy. The distribution of terminal equity stakes across a sample of 541 container terminals reveals a wide variety of stakes. 31.8% of all terminals have a stake higher than
- [Terminal and Port Related Risks for a Terminal Operator](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/terminal-port-related-risks-involved-terminal-operator/) - Source: Adapted from Theys C., Notteboom T.E., Pallis A.A., de Langen P.W. (2010). The economics behind the awarding of terminals in seaports: A research agenda. Research in Transport Economics, 27, 10-18.
- [Common Ship Hull Markings](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/common-ship-hull-markings/) - The most common hull markings on a cargo ship include: Registry flag. The name of the country of registry. IMO Number. The unique ship ID is registered with the International Maritime Organization. Pilot Boarding Mark. The location where pilots can board the ship with the midsection of the marker at 9 meters from the freeboard.
- [Warehousing Tiers at Port Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/warehousing-tiers-port-terminals/) - A substantial amount of warehousing takes place at ports, which takes unique forms depending on the cargo type, which can be terminal-specific. First-tier warehousing involves storage taking place directly within the terminal, while second-tier warehousing is port-centric and directly connected with the terminals. For general (unitized) cargo: Break Bulk. The most common form of first-tier
- [Multilevel car parks at Antwerp Euroterminal (AET)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/multilevel-car-parks-at-antwerp-euroterminal-aet/) - Antwerp Euroterminal (AET) is the largest multipurpose terminal in Europe, and it is located in the Antwerp port area in Belgium. The facility has been fully owned by the Italian Grimaldi Group since August 2022 and is Grimaldi’s main hub in Northern Europe. The terminal opened in 2001 and is home to RoRo and ConRo
- [Storage Configurations at Car Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/storage-car-terminals/) - The storage configuration at car terminals is the outcome of operational decisions with different types of parking configurations that can be combined. Fishbone configuration. Used for pre-sorting cars in view of loading operations onto trucks or rail wagons. 5x4 block configuration. Implies that a maximum of one car needs to be moved to reach any
- [Supporting Videos on RoRo Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/supporting-videos-on-roro-vessels/)
- [Supporting Videos on Container Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/supporting-movies-container-vessels/) - Below you will find a number of youtube videos providing more insight on the deployment of large container vessels in liner shipping.
- [Benefits of Home-porting at the Port of Barcelona](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/benefits-homeporting-barcelona/) - Source: Port de Barcelona and Turisme de Barcelona (2014). Cruise activity in Barcelona: Impact on the Catalan economy and socioeconomic profile of cruise passengers. In 2014, the revenues resulting from cruise activities at the Port de Barcelona, the major cruise port in Europe, were estimated at an average of €202 spending per cruise passenger hosted in Barcelona with
- [Cruise Home Port Selection Criteria](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/cruise-home-port-selection-criteria/) - Source: adapted from: Papachristou A.A., Pallis A.A. and Vaggelas G.K. (2020). Cruise home-ports selection criteria. Research in Transportation Business & Management.
- [Container Traffic Handled at the Main Ports Around the Strait of Oresund](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-handled-ports-strait-of-oresund/) - The Baltic Sea is only accessible through the Strait of Oresund, which gives opportunities for transshipment due to the limited container volumes involved and its lack of appeal for large-scale deepsea services. Transshipment is mainly assumed by Hamburg and Bremerhaven, which are usually the last ports of call for deepsea services towards Europe. However, their
- [Container Traffic Handled at the Main Ports Around the Strait of Gibraltar](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-handled-ports-strait-of-gibraltar/) - The Strait of Gibraltar is a natural bottleneck at the junction of the Mediterranean, North Atlantic, and West African shipping routes. The growth of the Europe / Asia trade has led to the increasing use of the strait for transshipment. Most of this transshipment takes the form of a dual competition between the established hub
- [Container Traffic Handled at the Main Ports Around the Panama Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-ports-panama-canal/) - Since the 1990s, the growth of transpacific trade has substantially impacted port dynamics around the Panama Canal. Most of the growth took place within Panama and was based on three vectors of maritime connectivity. The first is the connectivity provided by the Panama Canal, allowing the continuity of deep-sea maritime shipping services. The second and third vectors
- [Container Traffic Handled at the Main Ports Around the Suez Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-ports-suez-canal/) - With the growth of the Asia-Europe trade, the Suez Canal experienced a surge in the number of transits and tonnage in the 2000s. This surge has been accompanied by a growth of transshipment activities at Port Said, which is located at the Mediterranean entrance of the canal, and Jeddah on the Red Sea. This traffic
- [Petya Ransomware Cyber-Attack on Maersk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/safety-security-and-cybersecurity/petya-ransomware-cyber-attack-maersk/) - Source: Maersk website and The Maritime Executive (28 July 2017). In the Summer of 2017, a cyber-attack in the form of the "Petya" ransomware affected the Maersk group. The source of the attack is attributed to a Ukrainian accounting software company, whose server had been hacked by the Russian government. Once the accounting software patch
- [Largest Car Exporters and Importers, 2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/largest-car-exporters-importers/) - Source: WTO.
- [Large RoRo vessels of the PCTC and PCC type](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/large-roro-vessels-of-the-pctc-and-pcc-type/)
- [Mega Car Carriers: the Shaper+ Class](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/mega-car-carriers-the-shaper-class/) - The first units of the Shaper+ class ships of Wallenius Wilhelmsen are being built by China Merchants Jinling Shipyard (Jiangsu) for deliveries starting in late 2027. These vessels are a supersized version of the regular Shaper Class vessels with a unit capacity of 9,300 CEU (12 decks; 228m LOA and a beam of 38m; first
- [Extended Distribution Center System of JVC Belgium](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/extended-distribution-center-system-jvc-belgium/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2006. Source: based on Rodrigue and Notteboom (2009). JVC Belgium was set up in 1999 and is responsible for the European distribution of the products of Japanese electronics producer JVC. The European Distribution Centre is located in Boom, halfway between Antwerp and Brussels in Belgium. JVC Belgium uses inland barges to
- [The Limon Moin Container Terminal, Costa Rica](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/limon-moin-container-terminal-costa-rica/) - Source: Photo courtesy of APMT. Located about 160 nautical miles from the Caribbean entrance of the Panama Canal, the port of Limon Moin surpassed 1 million TEU for the first time in 2012, six times as much as the second-largest Costa Rican port, Caldera, on the Pacific side. However, the port was limited to alongside
- [Amazon Inbound Cross Dock Facilities Network](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/amazon-inbound-cross-dock/) - Source: Adapted from MWPVL International. Note: As of 2023. The growth of e-commerce has resulted in the setting of a hierarchy of distribution capabilities where the inbound cross-docking distribution center (IDX) is usually the point of entry. These facilities receive and consolidate orders from suppliers. Since a large share of the suppliers are foreign, IDXs
- [Warehouses and Distribution Centers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/warehouses-distribution-centers/) - Even if they may physically look similar, a warehouse and a distribution center have significant differences. A warehouse is a storage-based facility (supply-driven), while a distribution center has a significant throughput orientation (demand-driven).
- [Roro Barges for New Car Transport](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/roro-barges-2/)
- [Ramp Configurations for RORO Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/ramps-roro-vessels/) - Different configurations exist for ramps on RoRo vessels. The stern quarter ramp is most commonly used for PCTCs and PCCs. In the case of PCTCs, the ramp is strengthened for high and heavy cargoes like industrial and agricultural equipment and rolling project cargoes loaded on trailers. RoPax vessels are typically equipped with bow ramps or
- [Calais Ferry Terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/calais-ferry-terminal/) - The Calais Ferry Terminal is a complex of fixed ramps, parking areas, gates, and buildings. The facility accommodates ferries operating across the English Channel. The payload of these ferries includes accompanied trucks, cars, and passengers. Calais is the busiest ferry port in mainland Europe. The crossing time to the English port of Dover is 75
- [Wind Turbines as Break Bulk Cargo](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/wind-turbines-break-bulk/) - As of 2022, wind blade equipment is estimated to constitute roughly 20% of ocean-borne multi-purpose heavy lift cargo. It has become extremely important for a number of reasons. It moves almost from everywhere to everywhere and has become a commoditized business in many ways. It has produced a large volume of cargo. These cargos require specialized
- [World’s Largest Ports, 2016](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/largest-ports-world/) - PDF Map The global distribution of ports follows the Pareto principle, which states that a small number of ports account for a large share of the traffic.
- [Port Sites](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/port-sites/) - Source: Expanded from the American Association of Port Authorities. Based on a sample of the world's largest ports in terms of tonnage. N=156. PDF Map Port sites have been the subject of geographical considerations, with a preference for sites combining a good maritime profile with inland accessibility. There is a vast array of port sites
- [Import-Oriented Dry Bulk Terminal: EMO Rotterdam](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/dry-bulk-terminal-rotterdam/) - Major bulk terminal - EMO Rotterdam Source: adapted from website EMO Rotterdam. EMO is one of the largest dry bulk terminals in Europe, with a storage capacity of 7 million tons. The terminal receives some of the largest bulk carriers in the world. Almost 80% of dry bulk commodities are transported either via rail or inland
- [Crane Technology at Bulk Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/crane-technology-at-bulk-terminals/) - Bulk commodities are usually discharged using grabs attached to a crane. High-capacity clamshell grabs offer high unloading rates and high efficiency. The bulk handling cranes can be positioned along the quay (quay crane), on a platform/pontoon (floating crane), or on the ship (deck crane): Common quay crane types include portal cranes (mounted on rails), jib
- [Train Ferries on the Caspian Sea as Part of the Middle Corridor](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/automotive-roro-markets/train-ferries-on-the-caspian-sea-as-part-of-the-middle-corridor/) - The train ferries on the Caspian Sea mostly operate as part of China-Europe rail services on the Middle Corridor of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The Middle Corridor is the shortest route between western China and Europe, compared with the more frequently used Northern Corridor through Kazakhstan and Russia. The Middle Corridor offers a
- [Ocean-going Cruise Vessels Newbuilds in European Yards by Capacity in Passengers, 2015-2018](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/european-yards-dominate-cruise-ships-newbuildings/) - Source: CLIA Europe (2017). Contribution of Cruise Tourism to the Economies of Europe. Brussels: CLIA Although conventional merchant shipbuilding has declined in Europe since the late 1970s due to low-cost competition from the Far East, the European industry has been more successful in retaining market share in some specialist sectors. The most important is cruise
- [Classification of Cruise Ships by Cruise Lines](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/classification-cruise-ships/) - Note: Gross tonnage figures are rounded. The Quantum class is subdivided between Quantum ships with a capacity of 4,900 passengers and Quantum Ultra ships with a capacity of 5,500 passengers. Each cruise line (e.g. the illustrated cases of Carnival, Royal Caribbean, and Princess Cruises) classifies its vessels according to similar sizes and experiences offered to
- [Global Cruise Passengers Carried and Growth Rates, 1990-2024](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/global-cruise-passengers-carried-rates/) - Source: adapted from Cruise Market Watch. Note: Growth rates not depicted for 2020 (-74.2%), 2021 (+96.1%), 2022 (+46.7%) and 2023 (+50.4%). The global cruise market has witnessed continuous growth throughout the last three decades, a growth that was interrupted in 2020 by the COVID-19 pandemic. In the 1990s and the 2000s, the size of the
- [Kansas City Smartport: The Regionalization of Logistics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/kansas-city-smartport-the-regionalization-of-logistics/) - Kansas City is after Chicago, the second most important rail transport hub in North America. The city acts as a large terminal organizing regional and continental freight distribution. Located two-thirds of the way between Los Angeles and Chicago, Kansas City is at the heart of a rich agricultural and manufacturing region, making it a substantial
- [Ports With at Least One Cruise Berth with Shoreside Power, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/ports-cruise-berth-shoreside-power/) - Source: CLIA (2024) State of the Cruise Industry 2023. PDF Map
- [Offshore Dry Bulk Handling](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/offshore-dry-bulk-handling/) - The offshore handling of dry bulk cargo ranges from simple floating cranes to floating transfer stations with large offshore storage. Cranes are placed on one or more pontoons and connected to a cargo handling system consisting of hoppers, conveyors, and ship loaders (see left picture). The ship loaders have a large outreach and sufficient air
- [Deployment of Cruise Vessels: Coupling of Markets](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/coupling-cruise-markets/) - Cruise lines organize their itineraries and cruise offerings, repositioning their vessels between markets. Repositioning involves coupling cruise markets based on their proximity, cost issues, and passenger pattern sourcing. For instance, North Asia and South East Asia are two such markets, with their coupling based on the same sourcing of passengers, the demand for the same
- [Share of Monthly Cruise Passengers by Region of Destination, 2012](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/share-of-monthly-cruise-passengers-by-region-of-destination-2012/) - Source: data from Cruise Market Watch. The monthly deployment of cruise ship capacity underlines a substantial market seasonality. The Caribbean and the Mediterranean are regional and complementary markets accounting for more than 70% of the global capacity of the cruising industry (measured in bed days). They are complementary in the sense that the Caribbean is
- [Functional Relations between Inland Terminals and their Hinterland](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/functional-relations-inland-terminals-hinterland/) - Source: adapted from Wakeman, T. (2008) Marine Transportation of International Freight for the Northeast Corridor, in Anticipating 2025 in Northeast Corridor Transportation: Aerial, Highway, Marine, and Rail Technologies & Linkages, Institute of Public Administration, Public Policy Forum, University of Delaware, Newark, DE. pp. 38-59. An inland terminal has various integration levels with its hinterland that
- [Examples of Heavy Lift Cranes at Breakbulk Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/heavy-lift-cranes/)
- [AMAX Round-the-World Route, 2005-2007](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/amax-round-the-world-route/) - Source: China Shipping Line. PDF Map The first round-the-world routes were introduced in 1984 by the Taiwanese maritime shipping company Evergreen. This route took about 69 days and was serviced by about ten containerships of 4,000 TEUs in each direction (Westbound and Eastbound). Each port was thus called twice a week. However, by early 2002
- [Large Locks in the Port of Antwerp](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/large-locks-port-antwerp/) - Large locks connecting the dock systems to the river Scheldt The port of Antwerp in Belgium is located along the river Scheldt which gives access to the North Sea some 80km downstream. As a result of three capital dredging programs on the river and the estuary, completed in the periods 1970–1975, 1997–1998, and 2010–2011, Antwerp
- [Competition between the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/competition-between-ports-of-los-angeles-long-beach/) - Author: Dr. Geraldine Knatz, University of Southern California Sol Price School of Public Policy. Executive Director, Port of Los Angeles (2006-2014) Los Angeles and Long Beach are part of a cluster and are in direct competition for the same market. 1. Introduction: Adjacent Ports The Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, both municipal operations
- [Main American Banana Import Ports, 2011](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/main-american-banana-import-ports/) - The United States is the world's largest importer of tropical fruits with a long history of corporations actively involved in their production, transport, and distribution. For instance, Dole, Del Monte, and Chiquita are household names that have actively been involved in commercializing bananas for more than 100 years, with products mostly coming from Costa Rica,
- [Weekly Vessels Calls in World Ports, 2020 vs 2019](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/vessels-calls-ports-2020/) - Source: UNCTAD Project (2021; in progress) "Assessing the impact of COVID-19 on the maritime transport systems". Geneva: UNCTAD.
- [Ports and the COVID-19 Pandemic](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/ports-and-pandemic/) - Authors: Dr. Theo Notteboom, Dr. Athanasios Pallis and Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue The COVID-19 pandemic produced new and unprecedented impacts on global supply chains, ports and shipping. The pandemic has been a stark reminder that external shocks are recurring events testing the resilience of the port industry. The shape of the industry remains dependent on economic
- [Containerization, Cold Chains and the Flexibility of Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/containerization-cold-chains-flexibility-supply-chains/) - The example depicted in the above figure is illustrative of how commodity chains can become more flexible with the application of cold chain logistics. Conventionally, langoustines (a type of lobster also known as scampi) were fished off the coast of Scotland and brought to a nearby processing plant where they were mechanically pealed (high water
- [The Strategies of Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/strategies-port-operators/)
- [Size of Cruise Terminals in North America](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/size-cruise-terminals-north-america/) - Source: Barmello Ajamil and Partners (2016).
- [Terminalization of Cruise Ports: Port of Barcelona](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/terminalization-cruise-ports-barcelona/) - Sources: Port of Barcelona; Creuers del Port de Barcelona S.A.; Palacruceros. The port of Barcelona is the major cruise port in Europe and among the biggest in the world. Used for both home-porting and transit calls, the port hosts over 3 m. passenger movements per year. In 2019, it recorded 800 cruise calls, 875.600 home-porting
- [Potential Impacts of Container Terminal Automation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/potential-impacts-container-terminal-automation/) - The automation of container terminals may impact several aspects of maritime shipping, terminal operation, and logistics. Shipping network. Terminal automation may encourage shipping lines to call at automated ports with their largest ships since these terminals may be able to provide higher throughput, allowing them to use their assets more effectively. An additional form of
- [Carrier Haulage vs Merchant Haulage](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/carrier-merchant-haulage/) - Intermodal transportation can be organized under two general models: Carrier haulage. Acting on behalf of the Beneficial Cargo Owner (BCO), the carrier is responsible for organizing transportation between the origin and the destination of the cargo. When an inland movement is concerned, the carrier has to use a third-party motor carrier to transport on its
- [Q-flex LNG Carrier "Mesaimeer"](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/the-lng-shipping-market/) - Photo: Qatar Gas. LNG is natural gas stored and transported in liquid form at atmospheric pressure at a temperature of -161°C (-256°F). Liquefied gas occupies a volume corresponding to 1/600 of the product in the gaseous state, which brings remarkable economic value for transportation and storage.
- [Emerging Global Maritime Transport System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/emerging-global-maritime-freight-transport-system/) - PDF Map A global maritime freight transport system has been established since the late 19th century and has expanded with containerization. It includes east-west and north-south routes and locations enabling interconnectivity between these systems of circulation, whose main components include: Circum Equatorial Route. With the expansion of the Panama Canal, a relative parity exists for
- [Ship Recycling, Demolition or Scrapping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/ship-recycling-scrapping-demolition/) - Source: adapted from OECD (2019), Ship recycling: an overview, OECD/Paris. The average ship demolition/scrapping/recycling age ranges between 20 and 32 years, depending on the vessel type, the freight market conditions, and the demand from scrapyards. When freight and charter rates are high, average demolition ages are typically high since ship assets will be used as
- [Types of Port Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/types-port-terminals/) - Ports are complexes that include at least one terminal, but larger facilities include a variety of terminals that handle different types of cargo. The composition of these terminals determines the role and function of the port, with some ports being multifunctional while others can be specialized. Terminals come into three major categories: General cargo. Unitized
- [From Linear to Circular Economic Principles](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/from-linear-to-circular-economic-principles/) - Conventional economic systems were mainly built around linear principles, where resources were extracted, transformed, distributed, and eventually disposed of. This principle can be mitigated with recycling mechanisms, where discarded resources can be reinputted into the manufacturing process. Most economic systems have recycling mechanisms, particularly when they are cost-effective. The emergence of circular economic principles aims
- [Implications of Energy Transition for Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/implications-energy-transition-port-infrastructure/) - Source: adapted from Royal Haskoning (2022). The new energy landscape: Impact on and implications for European ports, study commissioned by ESPO and EFIP, 22 April 2022.
- [Ports and the New Energy Landscape](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/ports-new-energy-landscape/) - Source: adapted from Royal Haskoning (2022). The new energy landscape: Impact on and implications for European ports, study commissioned by ESPO and EFIP, 22 April 2022.
- [Geofencing at Port Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/geofencing-port-terminals/) - Note: Although the above map relates to a real port complex, the geofences depicted are fictitious. Geofencing creates virtual boundaries that act as notification events when they are crossed. To do so, location and status data of mobile assets (e.g., ships, trucks, containers) must be collected in real-time by a platform that cross-references these locations
- [Coldironing: On-shore Power Supply for Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/coldironing-on-shore-power-supply-vessels/) - Cold ironing for seagoing vessels and barges implies that a ship at berth uses shore power for the auxiliary engines instead of bunker fuel. This reduces emissions from the ships by a substantial margin, although the reduction in pollution occurs only when the ship is stationary at berth. Power cables are plugged into an electricity
- [Examples of Nuclear Power Plants in Seaport Areas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/nuclear-power-plants-seaport-areas/) - 1 – Doel (Antwerp), Belgium, 2 – Borssele (Flushing), the Netherlands, 3 – Vandella II (Tarragona), Spain
- [Examples of Coal-Powered Plants in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/coal-fired-gas-oil-fired-plants-seaport-areas/) - 1 – Sines, Portugal (hard coal), 2 – Varna, Bulgaria (bituminous coal and natural gas), 3 – Esjberg, Denmark (hard coal, oil), 4 – Hanasaari, Finland (hard coil, oil), 5 – Rotterdam/Maasvlakte, the Netherlands (hard coal, natural gas, biomass), 6 – Le Havre, France (hard coal, heavy fuel oil).
- [Port Electrification End Uses](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/port-electrification-end-uses/) - Source: Adapted from US Department of Energy (2024) Port Electrification Handbook, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Port electrification has four major end uses: Shore power. Cold ironing has been present in ports for decades, particularly for cruise and ferries, which require high voltage and high loads (e.g. 10 MW on average for a cruise ship). This
- [Fundamental Characteristics of the Maritime Industry](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/fundamentals-maritime-industry/) - The maritime industry is characterized by several fundamentals: Tertiary industry. The majority of the activities are in the tertiary sector, mainly services to cargo and ships. Some activities, such as fishing and offshore energy extraction are in the primary sector. Others, such as shipbuilding, equipment manufacturing, and port construction, are in the secondary sector. Derived
- [Marine Sales of International Marine Bunkers, 1925-2000](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/marine-sales-international-marine-bunkers/) - Source: Adapted from Endresen, Ø., Sørgård, E., Behrens, H.L., Brett, P.O., and Isaksen, I.S.A. (2007) "A historical reconstruction of ships’ fuel consumption and emissions", J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 112, D12301. The transition from coal to bunker oil as the main fuel for maritime shipping mainly took place between 1920 and 1950. During this phase, the tonnage
- [Number of Ports Managed per Port Authority in Europe](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/number-ports-managed-per-port-authority-europe/) - Sources: European Sea Ports Organisation (2011). Fact Finding Report. ESPO; European Sea Ports Organisation (2016). Fact Finding Report. Brussels: ESPO.
- [Benefits and Drawbacks of Port Electrification](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/benefits-drawbacks-port-electrification/) - Source: Adapted from US Department of Energy (2024) Port Electrification Handbook, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Port electrification has a series of expected benefits: Environmental. One of the core expected benefits of electrification is the reduction of environmental impacts generated by ports. Port equipment, particularly trucks, cranes, portainers, and gantry cranes, were conventionally powered by fossil
- [Digital Twin, PNIT, Busan New Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/digital-twin-pnit-busan-new-port/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2022. Container ports are highly suitable infrastructures to be represented as "digital twins", which are exact virtual representations in terms of positionality, scale, and dynamism. Since both physical and virtual representation should be indistinguishable, the digital representation (the digital twin) can be used for terminal operations and simulation. This is particularly
- [Intra-Port Competition in Busan New Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/intra-port-competition/intra-port-competition-busan-new-port/) - Busan New Port became operational in 1997 as an extension of the port of Busan. Over time, the port complex acquired six major container terminals, leading to an intense level of intra-port competition. Each terminal has an annual capacity above 2 million TEUs. The latest facility, Busan Container Terminal (BCT), is an automated terminal that
- [Dimensions of Intra-Port Competition](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/intra-port-competition/dimensions-intra-port-competition/)
- [Behavioral Factors Influencing Cargo Routing Decisions and Port Choice](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/behavior-port-choice/) - Humans do not always behave in a fully rational way, which could affect the choice of a route, a transportation mode, or a port: Incorrect and incomplete market information on the possible alternative routes available to supply chain managers and shippers results in ‘bounded rationality’ in the transport chain design, leading to sub-optimal decisions. Shippers
- [Sustainable Competitive Advantage of Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/sustainable-competitive-advantage-ports/)
- [Container Terminals of the World’s Major Terminal Operators, 2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/container-terminals-worlds-major-port-holdings/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants. PDF Map The footprint of global terminal operators is substantial, with an average terminal size of around 45 hectares. However, the figure is biased by a small number of very large terminal facilities, as the most common size is 30 hectares. Port holdings are mainly the outcome of horizontal
- [Evolution of the Role of Human Resources at Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-management-governance-leadership/evolution-role-human-resources-ports/) - Source: Joan MacLeod, Human Resources Director for Port of Halifax, Canada. Joan McLeod, who has 42 years’ experience at the Port of Halifax, Canada recently put together a chart characterizing the changes in the role and responsibilities of the port’s Human Resources Director. She has witnessed a change not only in the functions of the
- [Sample Mission Statements from Port Websites](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-management-governance-leadership/mission-statements-port/) - A port mission may focus on contributing to the economic development of the local economy and job creation (Maryland, U.S.). The port may view itself as a steward of a particular geographic region (Oakland, CA). The Port of Gladstone, Australia’s mission statement incorporates the principle of reducing social inequality, in their case, specifically to address
- [Main Impediments for Carriers to be Involved in Alliances](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/main-impediments-for-carriers-to-be-involved-in-alliances/) - Alliance membership comes with challenges and impediments for the carriers involved, as summarized in the above scheme. Alliances come with a loss of some operational independence for their members. While alliances play a key role in capacity management on the main East-West routes, carriers, therefore, show an increased level of pragmatism when setting up vessel
- [Top 15 container ports in the European Union in 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/top-15-container-ports-in-the-european-union-in-2021/) - Port performance measurement covers a wide array of key performance indicators (KPIs) related to supply chain performance, productivity, connectivity, sustainability/energy transition, corporate social responsibility (CSR), financial performance, customer satisfaction, innovation and economic impact. Still, it remains relevant to observe how cargo volumes have evolved over time, as cargo flows and related activities remain the bread
- [Green Port Dues: The Environmental Ship Index (ESI)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/green-port-dues-environmental-ship-index/) - Ports can implement voluntary programs to incentivize ship operators to green their ships. Green ship operators, in return, receive a benefit, such as a discount on port dues. An example is the Environmental Ship Index (ESI). The index was created by major ports in cooperation with the International Association of Ports and Harbors (IAPH) and
- [Regional Share of Hectares in the Terminal Portfolio of the Largest Global Terminal Operator, 2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/regional-share-terminal-portfolio-global-terminal-operators-hectares/) - There is a substantial geographical diversity of terminal assets among two groups; the four major holdings (HPH, PSA, DPW and APM) and the smaller terminal operators. DP World and APM Terminals have the most diversified portfolio of terminals in terms of geographical spread and can thus be considered the most “global” of the global terminal
- [Conditions for Port Privatization](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminals-and-terminal-operators/conditions-port-privatization/) - Source: adapted from UNCTAD meeting on Globalization of Port Logistics: Opportunities and Challenges for Developing Countries, December 2007, Geneva. A set of conditions, namely the bidding process, can be made available to favor a more efficient port privatization process. One of the most complex issues concerns conditions related to labor. In many countries, ports are
- [The Nicaragua Canal Project](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/nicaragua-canal-project/) - Plans for a canal crossing in Nicaragua first emerged in the 19th century to provide a maritime shortcut between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. In the 21st century, new ambitions emerged to construct such a canal in view of introducing a direct competitor to the Panama Canal.
- [The Greening of Terminal Concessions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/green-port-governance/greening-of-terminal-concessions/) - Source: adapted from NOTTEBOOM, T., 2010, Green concession agreements: how can port authorities integrate environmental issues in the terminal awarding process?, Port Technology International, issue 47, Autumn 2010, ISSN 1358 1759, p. 36-38 One emerging field of action for landlord port authorities relates to the inclusion of green factors when awarding terminals to private terminal
- [Most Common Clauses in Green Concessions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/common-clauses-green-concessions/) - The main environmental clauses that can be part of a terminal concession include: The compulsory use of some sort of environmental management reporting system. Stipulations on emission levels. Specific technical equipment to be used to limit emissions. Causes of existing or future contamination of the terminal site. Modal split targets. A small number of recent
- [Green Production](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/green-production/)
- [Maritime Capital Index and Container Traffic, 2020](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/maritime-capital-index-and-container-traffic-2020/) - Source: Adapted from Menon Consulting (2022), Maritime Capitals of the World. Note: The lower the score, the higher the ranking. Each selected city was ranked according to a series of ranking criteria within five major categories (Shipping centers, maritime finance and law, ports and logistics, maritime technology and competitiveness). The index is the unweighted summation
- [Realms of Action in Green Logistics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/realms-action-green-logistics/) - The main fields of action in green logistics are related to: Eco-friendly packaging. Packaging characteristics such as size, shape, and materials impact distribution due to their effect on the transport characteristics of the goods. Better packaging, along with rearranged loading patterns, can reduce materials usage, increase space utilization in the warehouse and the transport modes,
- [Panama Canal: Gatun Locks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/panama-canal-gatun-locks/) - Photo: Dr. Gordon Wilmsmeier, 2013. The Gatun Locks are at the north end of the Canal and are composed of two lanes and three lock chambers. Southbound vessels are approaching from the Atlantic (Caribbean) to be raised 26 meters in three steps to the level of the artificial Gatun Lake. After crossing the Gaillard Cut, the
- [Factors and Stages of Free Trade Zone Development](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/factors-stages-free-trade-zone-development/) - Source: Adapted from Lavissière, A. and J-P Rodrigue (2017) “Free Ports: Towards a Network of Trade Gateways“, Journal of Shipping and Trade, Vol 2, No. 7. Free zones (or free ports or free trade zones) have a wide variety of settings, roles, and functions. They can be seen as an evolution of factors related to
- [Operational Advantages of Foreign Trade Zones (FTZ)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/operational-advantages-foreign-trade-zones/) - A Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) is an area that is considered outside the customs jurisdiction of a country where cargo can be placed in a duty and tax-free environment until ready to enter the country. The main advantages of FTZ are thus regulatory and financial, which enables unique and flexible supply chain management practices: Custom
- [The Port as a Resilience Platform](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/port-stronghold/) - Looking at the port as a resilience platform allows for the continuation of supply chains and the availability of transport capabilities. It includes four core aspects: Strategic asset. As a transport facility, a port provides access and distribution capabilities to global and national markets. Ports should be recognized as strategic assets of national importance with
- [Most Common Causes of Cyberattacks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/most-common-causes-of-cyberattacks/) - Source: Statistica. Based on a survey of managed service providers in August 2020. Respondents were asked to pick three answers. For an organization relying on information systems for its management and operation, cyberattacks represent a significant threat. The most common causes of a cyberattack include: Weak or stolen credentials. Network access and privileges rely on
- [Distribution of Average Berth-Hours, 2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/distribution-average-berth-hours/) - Source: S&P Global Market Intelligence, Based on 4,864 port call events. The time at berth, an indication of the dwell time, is a performance metric for container terminal efficiency. A large sample of containership calls reveals that the majority of calls last less than 25 hours, with an average of 22.7 hours and a median
- [The Evolving Role of Shipping Lines in the Hinterland](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/evolving-role-shipping-lines-hinterland-push-strategy/) - Depending on the number of gateways, carrier haulage can increase in complexity, and estimating its cost in a bill of lading may lead to errors (usually under estimations). For a single gateway, carrier haulage can involve a double sequence involving ocean shipping and inland delivery to the destination selected by the cargo owner. For a
- [Digital Transformation and Expected Implications](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/digital-transformation-expected-implications/) - Source: Adapted from Van Peteghem (2016). Digital transformation involves the convergence of technology, data science, processes, and innovation. In particular, digitalization is the convergence of technology and data science. Digital transformation comes with expectations: First mover. Adopting digital technologies can confer a first-mover advantage, improve competitiveness, and increase market share. It allows a form of
- [Lat Krabang Inland Container Depot, Thailand](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/lat-krabang-inland-container-depot-thailand/) - With a population of 12 million, the metropolitan area of Bangkok is the largest city in Thailand and among the world’s largest agglomerations. It represents an important manufacturing and consumption center. However, Bangkok is more than 118 km from the main port facilities of Laem Chabang. By the early 1990s, container traffic was booming, and
- [CRIntermodal Chongqing Terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/crintermodal-chongqing-terminal/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2014. CRIntermodal Chongqing Terminal opened in 2009 at a site about 20 km from downtown Chongqing, which is a provincial municipality independent of the surrounding Sichuan Province. It was built on a railway substation converted into an intermodal terminal with a capacity (first phase) of about 350,000 TEU. It is owned
- [Uiwang Inland Port, South Korea](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/uiwang-inland-port-south-korea/) - A large share of the South Korean economy is export-oriented, so containers have to be brought inland and made available to importers and exporters. Seoul is Korea’s largest city and a significant manufacturing hub. However, Korea’s main deepsea port (and the world’s fifth largest) is located in Pusan, about 350 km to the southeast. In
- [Major Inland Terminal Clusters in North America](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/inland-terminal-clusters-north-america/) - The principle of co-location is fundamental to the operational efficiency of an inland port, particularly in North America. A distributional hierarchy is a function of accessibility and connectivity, where locations in the Midwest rank high as distribution hubs. The location of rail terminals is particularly preponderant around distribution hubs, underlining their role as inland load
- [Raritan Center, New Jersey](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/raritan-center-new-jersey/) - Raritan Center, located about 20 km from the terminals of the port of New York and along the I-95 interstate, is a major concentration of logistics activities. With 950 hectares, 3,000 tenants, and 15,000 people employed, it counts among the largest planned freight zones on the North American East Coast. Like several logistics zones in
- [CenterPoint-KCS Intermodal Center, Kansas City](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/centerpoint-kcs-intermodal-center-kansas-city/) - With the ongoing integration of the North American economy (e.g. NAFTA/USMCA), Kansas City has seen the emergence of a new corridor towards Mexico, often dubbed the “NAFTA highway”. The rail operator Kansas City Southern (KSC) has been a major proponent of this corridor by establishing a Mexican subsidiary (Kansas City Southern de Mexico; KCSM) with
- [BNSF Logistics Park, Chicago](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/bnsf-logistics-park-chicago/) - Most of the site is a reconversion of a former Army munitions depot (Arsenal) that was decommissioned in 1976, freeing about 25,000 acres of real estate. Of this, 19,000 acres became park land, and another 1,000 was allocated for a military cemetery. 2,032 acres were sold to the real estate developer Centerpoint Properties, and 620
- [Gennevilliers Inland Port, Paris](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/gennevilliers-inland-port-paris/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2008. The Genevilliers inland port is a barge port located about 10 km from downtown Paris. It is directly serviced from the ports of Le Havre and Rouen. One of the notable advantages of the inland port is its generous dwell time, about 10 days, which enables the facilities to be
- [Modal Split at Selected European Inland Terminals, 2007](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/modal-split-selected-european-inland-terminals/) - Source: adapted from “The future of freight transport and inland shipping in Europe 2010 – 2011”, Dutch Inland Shipping Information Agency. The development of inland terminals in Europe has been based on two main modal options complementing trucking; rail and barge. Facilities along the Rhine, such as Duisburg in Germany, handled substantial intermodal volumes in
- [Wind Turbine Parts, Materials and Potential Disposal Methods](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/wind-turbines-parts-materials-potential-disposal-methods/) - Source: adapted from Jensen, J.P. (2019). Evaluating the environmental impacts of recycling wind turbines. Wind Energy, 22(2), 316-326. As a result of the rise of wind energy as part of the energy transition mix, wind blade equipment is estimated to constitute roughly 20% of ocean-borne multi-purpose heavy lift cargo. These cargos require specialized port terminals and specialized
- [Action Fields for Material Sourcing Hub Creation in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/action-fields-material-sourcing-hub-creation-ports/)
- [Estimations of Ship-Generated Wastes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/estimations-of-ship-generated-wastes-per-type-of-waste/) - Source: CE Delft / EMSA (2017). The Management of Ship-Generated Waste On-board Ships, Lisbon: EMS For almost every type of waste generated by seagoing vessels, there is a variety of waste flows depending on the size of the ship; the cargo carried, and the number of persons on board. Fuel is a primary source of oily waste,
- [Functions of Selected Inland Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/functions-selected-inland-ports/) - Rodrigue, J-P, J. Debrie, A. Fremont and E. Gouvernal (2010) “Functions and Actors of Inland Ports: European and North American Dynamics”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 519-529. Located only a couple of kilometers from the German border, Venlo, Netherlands was initially linked to Rotterdam by the Betuweline rail link in the
- [Inland Terminal Life Cycle](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/inland-terminal-life-cycle/) - Source: adapted from Inland Port Transportation Evaluation Guide. An inland terminal, like most transport infrastructure, has a life cycle that involves a sequence of stages: Stage 1 (Planning). At this stage, the business opportunities of an inland terminal are considered and evaluated. This involves the identification of potential sites and the costs incurred, as well
- [Functional Pairing of Inland Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/functional-pairing-inland-ports/) - Since most trade flows are imbalanced, gateways and inland ports are facing challenges concerning the repositioning of empty containers as well as their availability at inland locations. As one of the objectives of inland ports is the promotion of their regional economies, a proactive strategy concerns the functional pairing of an inland port with other inland ports
- [Panama's Changing Role in the Global Transport System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/panama-changing-role-global-transport-system/) - Because of commercial and technological changes, the role a location plays in the global transport system can evolve, deriving higher levels of added value and economic development. Panama and its transoceanic canal are highly reflective of this evolution. From a simple point of transit, Panama is shifting towards a range of higher added value activities
- [Tonnage and Number of Transits, Suez Canal, 1976-2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/tonnage-number-transits-suez-canal/) - Source: Suez Canal Authority. The number of ships transiting and the tonnage handled by the Suez Canal underline two subsequent trends. From the 1980s to 2002, transits were in net decline while the tonnage handled steadily increased. This reflected the application of economies of scale, particularly in container shipping, as fewer ships transited roughly the
- [The Massification of Transportation in Inland Systems](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/massification-transportation-inland-systems/) - Source: Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2011) “Port Regionalization: Improving Port Competitiveness by Reaching beyond the Port Perimeter”, Port Technology International, No. 52, pp. 11-17. The growth of hinterland traffic, if only supported by drayage (truck) operations, leads to increasing diseconomies such as congestion and capacity limitations. With this, the level of disorder in the
- [Modal Shift and Inland Freight Diversion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/modal-shift-inland-freight-diversion/) - A gateway services its hinterland with a single mode (road) through a capillary / tree-like structure where flows converge at the terminals (A). In time, many transport terminals have become surrounded by various freight-related economic activities, which pose challenges in terms of local and regional road access. Congestion increases, and terminal access becomes increasingly problematic,
- [Functions of Inland Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/functions-inland-terminals/) - Inland terminals serve three non-exclusive functions: Satellite terminal. An intermodal facility built in proximity to the port in order to handle additional traffic, particularly if the port facility is congested (high costs). It allows ports to outsource a part of their footprint to lower-cost locations. Satellite terminals are also widely used to support container transloading activities and
- [Main Co-Location Advantages for Dry Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/advantages-co-location-dry-ports/) - Most of dry ports that were initially developed were intermodal facilities acting as nodes of convergence for regional freight distribution, enabling a modal shift away from road and freight diversion and away from congested areas. These two key paradigms have been expanded with a more comprehensive approach leaning on the principle of co-location. As a dry port
- [Bomb Carts, Yusen Terminals, Port of Los Angeles](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/bomb-carts-yusen-terminals/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2023. Bomb carts are designed for intra-terminal use allowing a quick turnaround of containers because they are gravity-loaded. There is no latching system (twist locks) and the container is dropped in a casing. For this reason, they cannot be used to carry containers on regular roadways. They can also be used
- [Construction of Deurganckdock,  Antwerp](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/construction-deurganckdock/) - Source: adapted from Vandamme, M., Bernaers, G., Aerts, F., Construction of the Deurganckdok in the Port of Antwerp, Belgium. After the completion in 1996 of two container terminals (Europaterminal and Noordzeeterminal) situated on the river Scheldt in the port of Antwerp, new container handling capacity was needed to accommodate the fast-growing container traffic in the
- [Cargo Bundling Options in Hinterland Transportation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/cargo-bundling-options-hinterland-transportation/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. (2008) Bundling of freight flows and hinterland network development, in: Konings, R., Priemus, H., Nijkamp, P. (eds), The Future of Intermodal Freight Transport, Operations, Technology, Design and Implementation, Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, p. 66-88.
- [The Yangtze River System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/yangtze-river-system/) - The navigable part of the Yangtze River can be divided into three main sections: The Lower Yangtze from Shanghai to Nanjing that allow deepsea ships with a draft of around 11 meters. The Middle Yangtze from Nanjing to Yichang (the nearest container port to the Three Gorges Dam). The Upper Yangtze from Yichang to Yibin.
- [Designated US Marine Highways](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/designated-us-marine-highways/) - Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Transportation – Maritime Administration. In 2007, the US Maritime Administration initiated a program promoting the use of the national waterway system, which includes rivers, channels, coastal navigation routes, and the St. Lawrence Seaway / Great Lakes system. In order to underline the possible complementarity between the highway and waterway system, analogies were
- [Inland Ports and Logistics Zones Around the Rhine / Scheldt Delta](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/inland-ports-logistics-zones-rhine-scheldt-delta/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. (2006) Port regionalization in Antwerp, in: Notteboom, T. (ed.), Ports are more than piers, De Lloyd: Antwerp, pp. 307-328. PDF MAP Seaports are the central nodes driving the dynamics of large logistics clusters. But at the same time, seaports rely heavily on inland ports to preserve their attractiveness. A major
- [Rail Freight Corridors in Europe](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/rail-freight-corridors-europe/) - Source: RailNetEurope. Regulation No. 913/2010 of the European Union required EU Member States to establish international rail freight corridors with the following main features: Co-operation between the (often national) Infrastructure Managers (IMs) in the field of train path allocation, deployment of interoperable systems, and infrastructure development. Provide enough capacity for freight transport, next to passenger
- [The Betuweroute](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/betuweroute/) - Source: Wikipedia. The Betuweroute is a double tracked freight rail track towards Germany and further into Europe. Work on the Dutch part of the track began in 1998. Delayed by two years, the railway was finished in mid-2007, at a cost of 4.7 billion euro, more than two times the original budget. The Betuweroute is
- [The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/belt-and-road-initiative-bri/) - The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) was launched in 2013 by President Xi Jinping to foster economic cooperation from the Western Pacific to the Baltic Sea and to break the connectivity bottleneck in Asia through infrastructure investments. It was initially called the One Belt One Road Initiative (OBOR). The BRI program is central to China's
- [Modal Split at Selected North American Container Ports, 2007](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/modal-split-selected-ports-north-america/) - Source: Port Authorities. The North American hinterland usually involves long distances, which is related to the higher role of rail transportation, particularly in comparison with Europe. Still, there are substantial variations in the modal split of ports, which is attributable to their hinterland. The differences between East Coast and West Coast port hinterlands are noticeable. Ports
- [Modal Split at Selected European Container Ports, 2007](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/modal-split-selected-ports-europe/) - Source: adapted from “The future of freight transport and inland shipping in Europe 2010 – 2011”, Dutch Inland Shipping Information Agency. The relatively short hinterland distances serviced by European ports, often less than 600 km (most common distances between 450 and 1200 km), are reflected in the modal split where trucking dominates. However, as traffic
- [The North American Container Port System and its Multi-Port Gateway Regions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/north-american-container-port-system-multi-port-gateway-regions/) - Source: Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2010) "Comparative North American and European Gateway Logistics: The Regionalism of Freight Distribution", Journal of Transport Geography, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 497-507. The North American hinterland can be accessed from three main maritime facades: the Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Gulf coasts. Along gateway regions, various long-distance intermodal
- [Port Authority Mergers in the Rhine-Scheldt Delta](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/rhine-scheldt-delta-europe-multi-port-gateway-region/) - Source: Notteboom (2021), own compilation based on figures port authorities The Rhine-Scheldt Delta includes all ports located in the estuary systems of the Rhine, Meuse, and Scheldt rivers. In 2020, this port system handled about 878 million tons and about 28.7 million TEU. The two largest ports in Europe, Rotterdam and Antwerp, are located in
- [Some Goods Consumed On Board a 3,000 Pax Cruise Ship per Week](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/goods-consumed-3000-pax-cruise-ship/) - Photo: Wikipedia. Source: Costa Departments: Fleet Operations and Environmental Management. A cruise ship with 3,000 passengers is considered of average size, with the largest ships exceeding 6,000 passengers. A typical cruise is seven days, and the ship stores are usually replenished at the turn port, so the cruise carries all the provisions for the full journey.
- [Packer Avenue Marine Terminal, Philadelphia](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/packer-avenue-marine-terminal-philadelphia/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2019. The Philadelphia / Wilmington/ Gloucester port cluster is the most important concentration of reefer activity in the United States, particularly for fruit imports from Latin America. The Packer Avenue Marine Terminal, operated by Holt Logistics, is a container terminal facility handling around 350,000 TEUs per year on a 42-hectare facility.
- [The Extended Gate Concept](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/extended-gate-concept/) - While port regionalization relates to the process that a port undertakes to improve its accessibility to its hinterland, the extended gate concept refers to the strategies by a single terminal operator to improve its hinterland services. Therefore, an extended gate is a specific form of port regionalization where the services offered by a terminal operator go beyond
- [Contact Us](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contact-us/) - Contact Information
- [The Circular Economy and Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/circular-economy-supply-chains/) - Most environmental processes, such as the water and carbon cycles, are based on large-scale circular principles since materials flow from one state to another. However, true circular principles are impossible from an entropic perspective since environmental processes require an important external input, which is energy (solar), to function. The circular economy tries to imply some
- [Benefits of the Leadership of Port Authorities in Promoting Circularity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/benefits-port-authorities-active-leadership-circularity/) - The leadership of the port authorities creates conditions for increased investments in advancing port circularity. By assuming a leadership role, port authorities are the active community builders engaging policymakers across different policy areas and levels of governance, as well as various stakeholders, in the circular port transition. Substantial investments condition circularity in any given port. However, ports are complex ecosystems with
- [Recycling from Waste to Pure Raw Material](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/recycling-from-waste-to-pure-raw-material/) - Recycling from waste to pure raw material in a certified way allows for better environmental performance while helping people and companies become more sustainable. By carefully selecting and shorting materials, extracting the highest feasible volume of new row material for every tonne of waste is possible. Certification allows for efforts towards a circular port economy
- [Technology Hype Cycle and the Port Circular Economy](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/technology-hype-cycle-port-circular-economy/) - Since port circular processes are a relatively recent endeavor relying on technologies and concepts that have not been fully formalized, they can be subject to hype cycles. There is a potential that some aspects of circularity can be exaggerated and may lead to delusion and even abandonment. This path dependency is not assured, but a
- [The Circular Economy in Ports and Maritime Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/circular-economy-ports-maritime-shipping/) - The port and maritime shipping industry have unique forms of circularity. Both shipping lines and terminal operators rely on their linear supply/procurement chains, with the outcomes being the setting up of shipping networks (A) and investments in port infrastructure (B). Four principles common to the circular economy can be integrated into the port and shipping
- [Monthly Container Traffic at the Port of Los Angeles, 2005-2023](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/competition-between-ports-of-los-angeles-long-beach/monthly-container-traffic-port-of-los-angeles/) - Source: Port of Los Angeles. The Los Angeles / Long Beach port cluster (also known as the San Pedro Bay) is the most important center of container port activity in the Americas. As of 2020, they jointly handled more than 17.3 million TEU, of which Los Angeles accounted for 9.2 million. Like many North American
- [San Pedro Bay Ports Container Volumes and Market Share](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/competition-between-ports-of-los-angeles-long-beach/san-pedro-bay-ports-container-volumes-market-share/) - Source: Port of Los Angeles and Port of Long Beach. From 1980 through 2023, the lead status has shifted back and forth between the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach, with Los Angeles holding the lead for 32 years and Long Beach holding the title for 11 years. The only time during these years that
- [Drivers of Port Terminal Migration and Relocation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/drivers-port-terminal-migration-relocation/) - Source: compiled and adapted from Notteboom (2016), The adaptive capacity of container ports in an era of mega vessels: the case of upstream seaports Antwerp and Hamburg, Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 295-309 There are multiple possible drivers for port terminal migration and relocation, including: (a) more stringent technical requirements, such as the need for
- [Modal and Temporal Separation at Freight Transport Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/modal-temporal-separation-freight-transport-terminals/) - Source: Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2009) “The Terminalization of Supply Chains: Reassessing the Role of Terminals in Port / Hinterland Logistical Relationships”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 36, No. 2, pp. 165-183. Due to congestion, capacity, and availability of inland transportation, containerization contributed to a modal separation at terminals and the setting of a
- [Three Major Inter-Range Routes Serviced by Maersk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/major-inter-range-routes-serviced-maersk/) - PDF Map Maritime shipping lines offer scheduled services commonly organized as loops calling ports along several maritime ranges that eventually end at the ‘starting port’, which is usually the port that generates the largest amount of export cargo. To maintain fixed call days, shipping lines usually employ what is colloquially called the "Rule of 7":
- [The Ripening of Bananas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/the-ripening-of-bananas/) - Bananas are harvested green and hard. After being packaged inside the boxes and put into a refrigerated environment, bananas temporarily stop to ripen. When arriving at the destination, bananas could be ripened according to customers’ needs and the distance of the retailer from the warehouse. Usually, in the warehouse, these requirements have to be fulfilled
- [Deployment of the Global Cruise Fleet, 2008-23](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/deployment-global-cruise-fleet/) - Source: adapted from Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA). The Caribbean and the Mediterranean are regional and complementary markets accounting for more than 50% of the global deployed capacity of the cruising industry (measured in the number of bed-days). They are complementary because the Caribbean is dominantly serviced during the winter while the Mediterranean experiences a
- [Media Elements](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/media/) - Port Economics, Management and Policy (Introduction and Chapter 1.1) PowerPoint presentations not yet available.
- [Caisson Construction Tema Port, Ghana](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/caisson-tema-ghana/) - Source: adapted from Samara M., Meridian Port Services (MPS) Tema Port in Ghana was constructed by MPS, a consortium of Bolloré Ports, Ghana Ports and Harbour Authority, and APM Terminals. The caisson method was used. A trench was dredged in the seabed 19m deep to receive 74 caissons. These concrete blocks of 1000 cubic meters
- [Container Port Traffic and Transshipment Traffic around the Caribbean Basin, 2015](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/container-port-traffic-transshipment-traffic-caribbean-basin/) - Source: TEU data from American Association of Port Authorities. Transshipment data adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants and port authorities. The Caribbean Basin is a region prone to transshipment activities, particularly for the following factors: Proximity to shipping lanes. Transshipment activities tend to converge in proximity to main long-distance shipping lanes to avoid undue detours (deviations). The
- [Potential Configurations of All-Water Routes Servicing the East Coast, Post Panama Canal Expansion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/shipping-configurations-post-panama-canal-expansion/) - Source: adapted from A. Ashar (2006) Revolution #4, Containerization International, December, pp. 46-49. There are four possible configurations to service East Coast ports through the expanded Panama Canal, each possible in conjunction with the others: Conventional. A single sequence that covers the entire East Coast through its main ports of call. The drawback of this
- [Comparative Characteristics of the Panama Canal Expansion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/characteristics-panama-canal-expansion/) - The Panama Canal expansion project had four main dimensions: New locks. Two complete new lock systems were built in parallel to the existing locks. They employ the rolling gates principle and use side basins to minimize water consumption. The gates are a dual system, implying that two independent gates are servicing the entrance/exit of each
- [Building Blocks of Material Exchange Platforms](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/building-blocks-of-material-exchange-platforms/) - Material exchange platforms typically include four components: A material passport includes the characteristics or identity of the material, such as its composition, origin, toxicity or deconstructability. A digital twin approach to match the digital identity of the material to the physical material (via tracking and tracing systems) in order to follow it throughout its life
- [Key Components of Circular Ship Design](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/key-components-of-circular-ship-design/) - In recent years, increasing attention has been geared towards circular ship design. Bringing circularity into ship design typically refers to incorporating principles of sustainability, environmental responsibility, and resource efficiency in the design and operation of ships. This is part of a broader effort to create a more sustainable and environmentally responsible maritime industry. The main
- [Circular Flanders as an Intermediary for Circularity in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/circular-flanders-intermediary-circularity-ports/) - Source: Circular Flanders The Government of Flanders in Belgium has set the circular economy as one of the seven transition priorities and appointed OVAM (the Public Waste Agency of Flanders) as the initiator of Circular Flanders. Circular Flanders portrays itself as the hub and the inspiration for the Flemish circular economy. It is a partnership
- [Panama and the Regional Transshipment System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/panama-regional-transshipment-system/) - Since 2000, Panama has seen substantial investments in port infrastructure. The sustained growth of Manzanillo International Terminal, Cristobal, Balboa, and Colon Container Terminal provides testimony to the success of these investments. The presence of Global Container Terminal operators such as Hutchison Whampoa (HPH), Evergreen, SSA, and, more recently, PSA attests to the attractiveness and value of Panama
- [Container Cargo Market Share Northeast Asia to the United States East Coast, 1999-2017](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-cargo-market-share-northeast-asia-united-states-east-coast/) - Source: Panama Canal Authority. Conventionally, the American East Coast was dominantly serviced for the Asian trade through West Coast ports and intermodal services since transit times were advantageous and capacity was abundant. This trade pattern supported the development of the North American landbridge, a network of trade corridors linking the west and the east coasts. The
- [Containership Transiting Through the Agua Clara Locks, Panama](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/containeriship-transiting-agua-clara-locks-panama/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2018 The expanded Panama Canal came online in 2016, offering the opportunity to accommodate large ships and strengthen its economies of scale. The Agua Clara locks are one of the two lock sets that link the Atlantic / Caribbean Ocean to Lake Gatun. The containership in the above photo is the
- [Suez Canal, end of 19th Century](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/suez-canal-19th-century/) - Source of image: Museum Victoria. By 1874, British shipping dominated traffic through the Suez Canal by four to one. Yet, it was owned solely by French shareholders and the Egyptian ruler. The two parties had come together in 1869 to form the Suez Canal Company. At that time, several countries were interested in buying additional
- [Containership Exiting the Gaillard Cut](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/containership-exiting-gaillard-cut/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2011. A containership of the Hamburg Sud shipping line completes the transit through the Gaillard Cut, the part of the Panama Canal that slices through the Continental Divide. The ship mostly carries empty containers, likely originating from the American East Coast and bound back to Asia. In the background is the Centennial
- [Maritime Chokepoints: Capacity, Limitations and Threats](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/maritime-chokepoints-capacity-limitations-threats/) - The maritime circulation capacity mainly dictated by the chokepoints does not leave much additional room to accommodate growth, although there is significant room to manage more effectively their use. Still, these geographical constraints cannot be easily bypassed and will be a significant factor in the security of global freight distribution. Occasionally, the dependency of the
- [Capacity of Key Strategic Passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/capacity-key-strategic-passages/) - While the bulk of global maritime trade takes place on open seas, the configuration of continental masses coupled with market demand, production, and resource extraction forces the convergence of maritime trade at three major bottlenecks: the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, and the Strait of Malacca. Their physical and operational characteristics dictate the volume and
- [Asian Cruise Passengers Source Markets, 2015-2020](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-passengers-source-markets-asia/) - Source: Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA), and various industry reports. Data for 2020: estimates as of Autumn 2019.
- [Cruise Source Markets, 2013-18](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-source-markets/) - Source: adapted from Cruise Lines International Association (CLIA). The dominant source market for cruise shipping remains North America, with a penetration level of around 3%, but there is a gradually changing customer base towards developing economies, particularly Asia. Countries with a maritime tradition tend to have a higher share of the population taking cruises. Penetration
- [Cruise Shipping during the Soviet Era](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruises-soviet-period/) - Cruises in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union began in the post-World War II period. One early example is the company Intourist, which in 1957 started organizing cruises in the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea. Another example is the Black Sea Shipping Company. Soviet Union registered vessels, mostly former liners registered either in CCCP or
- [Comparison Between Bulk and Containerized Commodity Transportation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/comparison-bulk-containerized-commodity-transportation/) - Despite appearing to be very different modes of shipping, there is an emerging complementarity between bulk and containerized shipping.
- [Monthly Containerized Agricultural Trade, United States, 2016-2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/containerized-agricultural-trade-usa/) - Source: USDA, U.S. Waterborne Containerized Agricultural Trade. Containerized agricultural trade, which includes imports and exports, has steadily been increasing. About 74% of agricultural imports are containerized, while 24% of exports are. This underlines very different commercial dynamics. The dominant containerized imports involve bananas, beverages, fruits, and vegetables, while the main exports are soybeans, animal feed,
- [20-Foot Containers on Chassis, Belgium](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/20-foot-containers-chassis-belgium/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2007. In Europe and other chassis markets, including China, motor carriers own chassis, which if often assigned to a specific truck. The above truck is pulling a combination of two 20-foot chassis designed to handle the heavy loads that these chassis often handle.
- [On Terminal Chassis Pool, Port of Los Angeles](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/on-terminal-chassis-pool-port-los-angeles/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2023. In the United States, a large portion of chassis are made available on regional or terminal pools owned by intermodal equipment providers, port authorities, or joint ventures. In this case, a truck driver backs up to pick up a pool chassis at Yusan Terminals in the Port of Los Angeles.
- [Bagged Coal Entering the Port of Cartagena to be Transloaded into Containers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/bagged-coal-cartagena-transloaded-containers/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012. The port of Cartagena, on the Caribbean coast of Colombia, has become a significant transshipment hub and a load center taking advantage of its proximity to the Panama Canal and the resource trade of the Colombian market. This confers a ready pool of empty containers available for commodity exports. One
- [Container Coal Stuffing Station, Port of Cartagena](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/container-coal-stuffing-station/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012. For several commodities, container stuffing is a relatively simple process, particularly if the commodities are delivered in loads that can readily be handled by forklifts. In the above photo, bagged coal is being stuffed into 20-foot maritime containers at an on-dock facility within the Manga Container Terminal at the port
- [Growth Factors behind the Containerization of Commodities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/growth-factors-containerization-commodities/) - Each containerization factor plays a different role depending on the circumstances and the commodity trade involved. For instance, in the United States, imbalances in container shipping rates have favored the export of low-value commodities (e.g. waste paper) across the Pacific.
- [Container Coffee Stuffing Station, Port of Cartagena](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containerization-of-commodities/container-coffee-stuffing-station-port-of-cartagena/) - Photo: Sociedad Portuaria Regional de Cartagena, 2012. Mainly because of its geography, a tropical mountainous country, Colombia, with production above 510,000 tons, was in 2010 the world’s fourth largest producer of coffee behind Brazil (2.9 M tons), Indonesia (1.1 M tons), and Vietnam (0.8 M tons). About 95% of the coffee exported on global markets
- [Cubic Yards Dredged by the US Army Corp of Engineers at Selected Port Districts](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/cubic-yards-dredged-us-army-corp-of-engineers-selected-port-districts/) - Source: CRS, using USACE Dredging Information Statistics. The extent of capital and maintenance dredging work is related to the length of a port's access channel and the level of sedimentation. The district of New Orleans accounts for the most extensive dredging efforts in the United States, with a navigation channel of around 400 km from
- [The Reconfiguration of Logistics Networks to Logistics Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/reconfiguration-logistics-networks-logistics-chains/)
- [Distribution Network Configurations for Containerized Import Cargo in Europe](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/distribution-network-configurations-containerized-import-cargo-europe/) - Before 1993, most companies set up a distribution structure based on a network of distribution centers in major countries in which they were present. Since cross-border transactions have increased drastically after the creation of the European Internal Market in 1993 and the fall of the Iron Curtain, most companies have consolidated their national distribution centers
- [Functional Types of Port Centric Logistics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/functional-types-port-centric-logistics/) - The first functional type illustrates the standard export-oriented paradigm, where the container port is the pivot for an export-oriented platform. This is particularly prevalent in East Asia, where offshoring has substantially influenced port development towards the setting up of large manufacturing clusters. First-tier port-centric logistics are predominantly focused on consolidating loads and container stuffing. Since
- [Cruise Ship Waste Streams for a One Week Itinerary](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/cruise-ships-waste-streams/) - Adapted from: Maritime Administration (MARAD) (2002). Maritime Trade & Transportation 2002 Washington D.C.: United States Department of Transportation. Depending on the ship size, the number of persons on board, the ship-operating route, the voyage duration, and the time spent in the respective areas, waste discharge might be restricted to time spent in port. The quantity and types of garbage to
- [The Tehuantepec Interoceanic Railway Project, 1884](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/tehuantepec-interoceanic-railway-project-1884/) - Source: Mining and Scientific Press, 1885. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec was, for long, an interoceanic shipping option that was particularly attractive to the United States. From its perspective, the distance involved was shorter than the Panama option. However, due to elevation and land distance (roughly 230 km), canal construction was not retained as an attractive
- [Drivers and Barriers for the Circular Economy in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/drivers-and-barriers-for-the-circular-economy-in-ports/) - Several drivers favor the implementation of circular economy mechanisms: Attracting new activities. New added value activities related to the circular economy can be located within a port complex, which supports a mission statement related to generating economic activities and their benefits for a regional economy. New technologies. Technological advances allow for new opportunities related to
- [Recycling Technologies in the Life Cycle of Plastics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/recycling-technologies-in-the-life-cycle-of-plastics/) - Source: adapted from JRC Technical Report (2023), Environmental and economic assessment of plastic waste recycling
- [The Concept of Extended Producer Responsibility](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/concept-extended-producer-responsibility/)
- [Cruise Ports Waste Reception Facilities: Ownership and Fee Schemes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/green-port-governance/cruise-ports-waste-reception-facilities/) - In the second major cruise market of the world, the Mediterranean Sea, the available waste reception facilities in port are under different proprietary status, private ownership being dominant, yet the extent of that this happens per type of facility differs. In the case of recycling plants, over half of the available facilities are privately owned.
- [Circular Ports and Circular Maritime Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-circular-economy/circular-ports-circular-maritime-supply-chains/)
- [Dry Canal Projects in Central America](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/dry-canal-projects-central-america/) - PDF Map Conventionally, Central American countries had poor connectivity internally (within countries and through the region) and with the global economy. The expansion of the Panama Canal and growing trade in Latin America has incited the consideration of several dry canal projects linking the Pacific Ocean to the Caribbean Sea (Atlantic). Such projects usually involve
- [The Port of Savannah Logistics Cluster](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/port-of-savannah-logistics-cluster/) - The port of Savannah has become an important gateway and logistics cluster for the North American market.
- [Container Traffic at Selected East Coast Ports, 1990-2022](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/port-of-savannah-logistics-cluster/container-traffic-selected-east-coast-ports/) - Source: Port Authorities. Gateway ports of the North American East Coast have experienced a renewed dynamic with the growth of global trade and all-water services with Asia through the Panama Canal. This trend was mostly played out between 2002 and 2008. The port of Savannah benefited substantially from this trend and experienced strong growth; by
- [Global Containerized Trade by Main Cargo Category (in TEU)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/global-containerized-trade-main-cargo-category-teu/) - Source: MDS Transmodal, World Cargo Database. Note: Groups are at the SITC 2 digits level. It is estimated that in 2015, 135.5 million TEU of trade was carried in containers, compared to 88.5 million TEU in 2005. The composition of global containerized trade shows an extensive diversity of the goods being carried, with no particular category (SITC 2
- [International Trade of Merchandises, 2003-2013](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/international-trade-merchandises/) - Source: WTO. In billions of dollars and in % of all exports. Three major poles account for the majority of the global trade, about 83% of all exports in 2013. However, most of this trade is regional in scale, particularly within Europe where close to 69% of all exports are taking place within the region,
- [Modal Shares of World Trade by Volume and Value, 2008](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/maritime-shipping-and-international-trade/modal-shares-world-trade-volume-value/)
- [Tools for Managing Port Risk and Resilience](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/tools-for-managing-port-risk-and-resilience/) - The types of risks ports are exposed to force them to adopt means of coping with uncertainty. Increased volatility and major external and internal shocks require a focus on risk analysis and mitigation and avoiding actions and situations that entail more than moderate degrees of risk. Tools can provide port authorities and port-related companies with a set
- [Port Energy Strategies](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/port-energy-strategies/)
- [Port-Centric Energy Production and Transformation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/ports-energy-transition/port-centric-energy-production-transformation/) - Ports are effective locations for energy production or transformation industries such as power or petrochemical plants. The main reason behind this locational behavior is that the material inputs of the energy industry are bulk products prone to economies of scale (petroleum, coal), for which the use of maritime shipping is the most efficient. Still, there
- [Terminal Depth at Selected Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/terminal-depth-selected-ports/) - PDF Map Terminal depth represents the available draft at existing terminals that can differ from channel depth, which is the draft of the port access channel(s). Docking depth and pier length may limit the number of slots that can accommodate a deep draft vessel within a port. The drafts of a large sample of commercial
- [Major Types of Chassis Pools](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/types-chassis-pools/) - There are four main types of chassis provision models, mostly organized as pools. Single chassis provider. An individual intermodal equipment provider (IEP) owns chassis pooled/stored at selected locations, usually in proximity to container yards. The motor carrier must pick up and drop chassis from selected locations offered by the IEP. Providing chassis to shippers and
- [The Container and the Chassis Markets](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/container-and-chassis-markets/) - The container and chassis markets are separate and interdependent. Container market. Controlled by shipping lines and container leasing companies, which generally involves the movement of containers over long distances and across international boundaries. Chassis market. Controlled by Intermodal Equipment Providers (IEP), shipping lines, and motor carriers, which involves regional and local movement of containers by
- [Chassis Operations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/chassis-operations/) - Chassis operations cover two main categories, for drayage (terminal to destination and back) and for terminals (intra-terminal movements and wheeled container storage).
- [Carrier Competition within Alliances](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/carrier-competition-within-alliances/)
- [Labor Requirement in Conventional versus Fully Automated Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/labor-requirement-conventional-automated-terminals/) - Sources: Journal of Commerce; Moffat & Nichol; Moody’s Investors Service.Notes: Supercargo is a shipboard representative of the cargo owners. A signalman is a worker providing guidance for crane operators. A swingmen directs traffic under cranes so that vehicles are properly aligned. A container handler is a person taking care of the latching and unlatching of
- [Ports as Clusters of Economic Activity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-economic-value/ports-clusters-economic-activity/) - Each port has a combination of economic activities that define its role and function. Transport and cargo handling. All the activities related to the organization and operation of freight movements at the port terminals and inland. Logistics. All the activities supporting the distribution of goods, including warehousing, which are fully or partially handled by the
- [Remotely Operated Crane, Busan Container Terminal (BCT)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/remotely-operated-crane-busan-container-terminal/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2022. A form of terminal automation concerns remotely operated ship-to-shore gantry cranes. In the above photo, an operator controls a crane handling containerized cargo at Busan Container Terminal (BCT), a facility that opened in mid-2022. A system of cameras in a closed circuit allows for monitoring loading or unloading operations from
- [Control Station for Automated Stacking Cranes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/control-station-automated-stacking-cranes/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2018. Automated Stacking Cranes (ASC) are rail-mounted gantry cranes managing stacks of containers that are usually aligned perpendicular to the pier. They have become an important component of container terminal automation by allowing faster and continuous stacking, repositioning, and retrieval of containers. The above photo depicts an ASC control station where
- [Selected Port Community Systems](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/selected-port-community-systems/) - Most of the port authorities are implementing their own platforms as an interface between the main stakeholders using their services. Each is an ad hoc design trying to integrate the massive amounts of involved channels and data flows.
- [Composition of the Global Fleet of Containers, 2012](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/composition-global-fleet-containers/) - Source: Drewry Shipping Consultants. The 40-footer, both in its standard and “high cube” form, is the most common container, accounting for 68% of all TEUs, while the 20-footer accounts for 26%. The remaining 16% involves specialized containers such as reefers (7%). About 90% of the world’s containers are made in China, namely because China is
- [Container Traffic Handled at Main Ports around the Strait of Malacca](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/container-traffic-ports-strait-of-malacca/) - The Strait of Malacca is the world’s most important strategic passage in terms of the volumes it transits; about 30% of the global maritime traffic. Benefiting from its strategic location, the Port of Singapore dominates (around 50% of traffic) and has remained the region’s most important transshipment hub, connecting cargoes between Europe / Asia routes.
- [Transshipment Patterns](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/transshipment-patterns/) - Source: adapted from Ashar (2009). A transshipment hub can emerge under specific circumstances involving three main patterns: Direct service. A default configuration where a sequence of ports (A, B and C) are all serviced by the same shipping route. By-passing. Mainly because of insufficient volume a port call may be dropped along a port sequence
- [Site of the 2022 Chittagong Container Depot Explosion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/chittagong-port-explosion-2022/) - Note: Image, February 2022. Source: Background map from Google Earth. BM Container Depot is an inland container depot located at Sitakunda, 40 km north of the Port of Chittagong, Bangladesh. The Dutch/Bangladeshi joint venture started operations in 2011 as a buffer between Bangladesh’s main port and its largest city, Dhaka, 250 km north. The area
- [The Geostrategy of Russian and Ukrainian Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/geostrategy-russian-ukrainian-ports/) - Sources: FAO Database, bp Statistical Review of World Energy July 2021. Own port dataset. Data is for 2020. Even if it is the world's largest country covering a large share of the Eurasian landmass, Russia has highly constrained access to commercial maritime shipping that can be blocked for strategic reasons. On the Baltic range, Russia
- [Container traffic of European ports between 1985 and 2021](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/container-traffic-european-ports/) - This video shows container traffic growth in European ports between 1985 and 2021. The bars are proportional to the total container traffic handled in TEU. The top 3 European container ports have remained unchanged since the start of containerization in European ports in the late 1960s: the Dutch port of Rotterdam, the Belgian port of
- [Conferences versus Alliances in Maritime Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/conferences-liner-shipping/) - Container shipping lines have evolved from conferences toward alliances. A liner conference is defined by UNCTAD’s Convention on a Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences (Chapter 1) as "a group of two or more vessel-operating carriers which provides international liner services for the carriage of cargo on a particular route or routes within specified geographical
- [Seaborne Reefer Trade, 2008](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/seaborne-reefer-trade/) - Source: Drewry Shipping Consultants (2010), Reefer Shipping Market 2010/11, Drewry Publishing, London. A 40-foot reefer costs in the range of $30,000 while a regular container costs $5,000. The main reefer commodity groups are divided into living and non-living cargo. Bananas, exotics (pineapples, kiwifruit, avocados), deciduous (apples, grapes, pears) and citrus (oranges, lemons/limes, grapefruit, others) are
- [Program of Maersk Line to Shorten the List of Charges/Surcharges (2013)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/maersk-surcharges-list/) - Maersk Line introduced its first “Maersk Line BAF Calculator” in 2008 based on the following formula: BAFt = (Bunker Pricet - Base) x (ConsumptionTEU/day) x (Transit Timeday) x (Imbalance Factort) In this case, the bunker price change is extracted from the difference in time t between a representative basket of prevailing bunker prices in a
- [Main Incentives for Carriers to be Involved in Alliances](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/incentives-carriers-alliances/) - Source: Adapted from Ghorbani, M., M. Acciaro, A. Transchel and P. Cariou (2022) ”Strategic alliances in container shipping: A review of the literature and future research agenda”. Maritime Economics and Logistics. The setting of alliances in the container shipping industry relies on several factors with related expectations: Financial. The potential to combine container cargo allows for the
- [Shipping Lanes and Strategic Passages in Pacific Asia](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/shipping-lanes-strategic-passages-pacific-asia/) - PDF Map Economic development in Pacific Asia has been accompanied by the strong growth of container port traffic and the setting of a major maritime trade corridor and its connectors. This corridor is structured along a North-South maritime axis that runs from a cluster of Japanese ports (Tokyo/Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka/Kobe) to Singapore, including along the
- [Central American Interoceanic Canal Routes Considered](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/interoceanic-central-american-canal-routes-considered/) - Through the centuries of European and American involvement in Central America, several routes were considered and eventually discarded as an option to link the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. The first surveys were done by the Spanish in the 16th century and recommended routes that would remain for centuries the most viable options for a transoceanic
- [Largest E-Commerce Corporations by Revenue, 2019](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/largest-e-commerce-corporations/) - Source: MarkinBlog. In the past 20 years, Amazon‘s operating strategy has shifted from an online retailer to B2B service provider, offering a stack of critical infrastructure as a service to other businesses. In cases where operations were initially outsourced, Amazon developed in-house, technology-driven solutions. Once successful, these solutions were offered as an external service to
- [CSCL Indian Ocean Grounded on the Elbe, 2016](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/hamburg-port-blockage-2016/) - Hamburg is Germany's main port and ranked in 2020 as the 18th largest container port in the world, handling 8.5 million TEUs. It possesses an extensive network of hinterland accessibility into Central and Eastern Europe. The terminals are accessible through navigating the river Elbe over a 116 kilometers stretch from the North Sea. This bottleneck
- [Main Natural and Anthropogenic Supply Chains Disruptions in the 21st Century](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/natural-anthropogenic-supply-chains-disruptions/) - Note: The level of severity is relative to the scale of the event in relation to the context it is taking place. For instance, the Haiti Earthquake of 2010 has a high severity in terms of its impact on the Haitian economy. On the global scale, its severity is much more limited. Supply chains can
- [Sea Lock Ijmuiden in Port of Amsterdam](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/new-sea-lock-in-port-of-amsterdam/) - Sources: adapted from Port of Amsterdam website and Gordijn, R. (2017), Amsterdam port: building the largest sea-lock, Port Technology International, issue 75, p. 36-38. The building consortium OpenIj constructed the largest sea lock in the world (in lock chamber dimensions) at the mouth of the 27-kilometer-long North Sea Canal (Noordzeekanaal) that links Amsterdam and its
- [Types of Cruise Itineraries](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/types-cruise-itineraries/) - Cruise lines set itineraries to maximize customer satisfaction (and revenues) but must take into consideration the seasonality of the demand. These fundamental market characteristics imply that three main types of itineraries are used: Perennial. Concern markets that are serviced year round because of stable demand and relatively constant weather conditions (tropical and sub-tropical). The two
- [Unloading a Banana Ship, New Orleans, 1903](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/unloading-banana-ship-new-orleans-1903/) - Source: Library of Congress LC-D4-16345. By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, cold chains began to be set. The banana trade was an important driver of this transformation since it represented a perishable good that could be produced in large quantities and thus required mass conveyances. As long as the cargo could arrive in good
- [Container Repositioning using an Empty Container Depot](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/container-repositioning-empty-container-depot/) - Source: adapted from Boile, M., S. Theofanis, M. Golias and N. Mittal (2006) Empty Marine Container Management: Addressing Locally a Global Problem. TRB Annual Meeting, Washington, DC. Paper # 06-2147. Among the variety of roles that an empty container depot can fulfill, the most prevalent include: A neutral location where empty containers owned by leasing companies and
- [Global Oil Market](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/global-oil-market/) - Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy. (oil production and consumption). Lujala, Päivi; Jan Ketil Rød & Nadia Thieme (2007) “Fighting over Oil: Introducing A New Dataset”, Conflict Management and Peace Science 24(3), 239-256 (oil field data). Harvard WorldMap (pipelines). The global oil market is composed of three main elements interacting to set supply, demand,
- [Umbrella Associations in Rotterdam and Antwerp](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/umbrella-associations-in-rotterdam-and-antwerp/) - Deltalinqs was established in 2001 to represent the interests of about 700 companies or over 95% of all logistic, ports, and industrial enterprises from 14 different sectors in the Port of Rotterdam. Deltalinqs strives to strengthen Rotterdam’s competitiveness, sustainable growth, and social and political acceptability for all activities within the port and industrial area. Expertise
- [The European Union and Port Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-performance/the-european-commission-and-port-performance-measurement/) - In addition to publishing port traffic data via the statistics office EUROSTAT of the European Union, the European Commission (EC) funded two major projects focused on the development of Europe-wide performance measures for ports: The PPRISM project aimed to identify a set of sustainable, relevant and feasible port performance indicators to be implemented at EU
- [OECD and Port Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-performance/oecd-and-port-performance/) - OECD-ITF and port performance The Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an alliance of 36 member states. Most of them have an above-average economic level with a higher income. Several port-related research initiatives are worth mentioning, most of them published by the OECD research team at International Transport Forum (ITF): In 2013, OECD
- [UNCTAD and Port Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-performance/unctad-and-port-performance-measurement/) - United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) is a permanent intergovernmental body established by the United Nations General Assembly in 1964. Its headquarters are in Geneva (Switzerland). UNCTAD supports developing countries in accessing the benefits of a globalized economy more fairly and effectively, by providing analysis, consensus-building, and technical assistance. Its focus is predominantly
- [The World Bank and Port Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-performance/the-world-bank-and-port-performance-measurement/) - The World Bank had already started to report on port indicators in the early 1990s, focusing also on operational issues as it proposed three broad categories of indicators: (1) asset performance indicators, (2) operational performance indicators, and (3) financial performance indicators. A 1993 report simply only proposed the indicators but did not include any data
- [Classification of the Core Competencies of Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/inter-port-competition/core-competency-port/) - Source: adapted from Coeck, C., Notteboom, T., Verbeke, A., Winkelmans, W., 1996, A resource-based perspective on strategic port planning, Proceedings of the 11th International Harbour Congress, Antwerp, pp. 29-40. Based on the parameters of source of inimitability and character of the core competencies, a matrix can be constructed. A core competency purely based on the
- [Cruise Ship Store Loading and Cold Ironing](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/cruise-ship-store-loading-cold-ironing/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012. Cold ironing or shoreside power facilities are being installed in several urban cruise terminals to reduce the environmental impact of docked ships. In 2001, the port of Juneau in Alaska was the first in the world to offer shoreside power for cruise vessels. Seattle followed with two installations in 2005
- [LNG-Powered Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/long-powered-container-vessel/) - Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) serves as an attractive fuel for ships to meet the stringent environmental regulations enacted by IMO, particularly in sulfur and NOx emissions. Dual-fuelled ships are entering the market. An example is the new generation of LNG containerships introduced by CMA CGM in 2020, which are emitting up to 25% less CO2,
- [Sustainability Reporting by Port Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/green-port-governance/sustainability-reporting-by-port-authorities/) - The practice of sustainability reporting, beyond mere environmental reporting, started in the late 1990s. More recently, the port industry is adopting this reporting to conceptualize sustainability and as an essential basis for the license to operate. Mainly larger port authorities have started producing sustainability reports or integrated reporting on a voluntary basis in the past
- [Port Reform and Integration in Mainland China](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/port-reform-integration-mainland-china/) - The past 65 years have brought significant changes to China’s economic and political landscape. The changes in China’s economic policy brought by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 were followed by a long transition period towards a market-based economy. Chinese national reforms and the transfer of power from the central government to local governments had an impact
- [Italian Port System Authorities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/italian-port-system-authorities/) - Source: Parola, F., Ferrari, C., Tei, A., Satta, G., and Musso, E. (2017). Dealing with multi-scalar embeddedness and institutional divergence: Evidence from the renovation of Italian port governance. Research in Transportation Business & Management, 22, 89-99. The merging of the 24 existing port authorities and other smaller ports into 15 Port System Authorities (PSAs) has
- [Cooperation between Non-proximate Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/cooperation-between-non-proximate-ports/) - Source: Adapted from Pallis A.A. and Kladaki P. (2019). Inter–organisational relationships of European port management entities. Ιn: Panayides P.M. (ed): Routledge Handbook In Maritime Management, 283-298, London: Routledge. Collaborative efforts between non-proximate ports are scattered across continents and take on different types of relationship formats. These range from collaborations (formalized via mutually signed agreements or not), Joint Ventures/investments,
- [Linking Port Governance and Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/linking-port-governance-performance/) - Source: adapted from Brooks M.R. and Pallis A.A. (2008). Assessing port governance models: Process and performance components. Maritime Policy and Management, 35(4), 411-432. Once in place, a port governance model is under re-evaluation and subject to re-alignments. The scope is to fix any misalignment in the framework imposed or to fit it to changing economic circumstances, but also to
- [Container Terminals Concessions in Global Ports per Type of Transaction](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/container-terminals-concessions-transactions-per-type/) - Source: Farrell S. (2012): The ownership and management structure of container terminal concessions, Maritime Policy & Management, 39(1), 7-26 Tracking the terminal concessions process in world ports reveals that more than one out of four ports have assigned terminals through some form of competitive tendering. In most cases, this has been a formal process, beginning
- [Nike European Logistics Campus in Belgium](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/nike-european-logistics-center-belgium/) - Author: Dr. Theo Notteboom Nike, one of the world's leading sportswear companies, operates a large Main Distribution Center (MDC) in Belgium. In this case study, we apply the theoretical discussion on distribution centers presented in chapter 1.4 to Nike's European Logistics Campus. Nike made a major change in its distribution system (level 1) in Europe
- [Green and Sustainable Warehouses](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/green-sustainable-warehouses/) - Construction materials. The use of sustainable construction materials contributes to a lowering of the ecological footprint of warehouses. Using non-toxic paints, high-value insulation, installing skylights or natural light access points leads to a more efficient building. Energy efficiency. Solar panels and stormwater management systems improve energy efficiency and self-sufficiency. Other improvements include the use of
- [Functional Integration of Maritime Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/functional-integration-maritime-supply-chains/) - Source: Rodrigue, J-P (2006) “Challenging the Derived Transport Demand Thesis: Issues in Freight Distribution”, Environment & Planning A, Vol. 38, No. 8, pp. 1449-1462. The efficiency of freight distribution is linked with the level of functional integration along supply chains. It is dependent not only on physical flows generated by its various functions (manufacturing, physical
- [Container Freight Station, Shenzhen, China](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/container-freight-station-shenzhen-china/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2005. Since Shenzhen is a large manufacturing cluster, its export-oriented economy generates volumes of outbound containerized cargo. This cargo can be brought to a container freight station (CFS) where it can be consolidated into container loads. Empty containers are collected from the nearby port terminal (Yantian), brought to the CFS, filled
- [World’s Largest Third-Party Logistics Providers, 2019](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/largest-third-party-logistics/) - Source: Armstrong & Associates. In 1999, DHL Supply Chain and Global Forwarding, a part of the Deutsche Post DHL Group, acquired the Swiss logistics provider Danzas and Air Express International (AEI), the largest American service provider in the field of international airfreight. Deutsche Post acquired DHL in 2002. In late 2005, Deutsche Post acquired the
- [Types of Container Flows](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/types-container-flows/) - For long distance trade, three main types of container flows are possible: Balanced. Container flows for exports and imports between two partners are almost similar. Thus, for each full container being unloaded, there is an opportunity for a backhaul movement. This situation is uncommon. Imbalanced. There are container flows in only one direction, implying that
- [Costs of Super and Mega-size Cruise Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/costs-super-mega-size-cruise-vessels/) - Source: Chaos, S.R., Pallis, A.A., Marchán, S.S., Roca, D.P. and Conejo, A.S.A., 2020, Economies of scale in cruise shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics. doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00158-3.
- [The Nicaragua Canal System](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/nicaragua-canal-system/) - PDF Map
- [Reefers Used for Temporary Cold Chain Storage](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/reefers-temporary-cold-chain-storage/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2016. In several developing economies, the availability of cold storage facilities is limited, and building such storage can be beyond the reach of small and medium-sized traders. Alternative solutions, such as using reefers for the temporary storage of frozen food, can be found. The importer is willing to pay additional demurrage
- [Global Natural Gas Market](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/global-natural-gas-market/) - Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy. Substantial reserves of natural gas exist, likely to satisfy energy needs for the next century. With 45% of the world's reserves are in Russia and Iran, the supply has a high concentration level, leading to classification opportunities. These have been particularly taken advantage of by Russia that has
- [European Port Policies](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/ports-policies-and-politics/european-port-policies/)
- [The AIVP 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Port Cities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/sustainable-port-cities/) - Source: adapted from AIVP
- [Two Possible Constellations for the City-Port Border Area](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/possible-constellations-port-border-region/)
- [Airport Passenger Traffic by Metropolitan Area, 2018](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/passenger-traffic-worlds-largest-airports/) - Source: Airports Council International. Note: Several metropolitan areas contain more than one airport.
- [Container Traffic at Container Ports: Impact of crises (2019/2020 vs 2008/2009)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/growth-container-traffic-major-container-ports-2019-2020-2008-2009/) - Source: Notteboom T.E. Pallis A.A. and Rodrigue J-P. (2021). Disruptions and Resilience in Container Shipping, Ports and Supply chains: The COVID-19 pandemic vs. the 2008-2009 Financial Crisis. Maritime Economics and Logistics, doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00180-5.
- [Port Performance: Strategies to enhance effectiveness](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-effectiveness/port-strategies-enhance-effectiveness/) - Source: Adapted from Mary R. Brooks and Thanos A. Pallis (2013). Time to assess: Port users perspectives are important, Port Technology International. The relation between the value attributed to specific parameters of port activities and the gap between importance and performance provides actionable data for developing strategic plans for investment and marketing. Ports need to invest
- [Parameters Shaping the Perspectives of Port Users](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-effectiveness/parameters-shaping-port-users-perspectives/)
- [The Timing of Port Capacity Extensions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/the-timing-of-port-capacity-extensions/) - Source: adapted from Winkelmans, W., Notteboom, T. (2002). Dealing with uncertainty in port capacity planning, Port Technology International, edition 16, Summer 2002, 187-189
- [Criteria of Cruise Ports Performance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-effectiveness/cruise-ports-performance-criteria/) - Source: Based on surveys of European Cruise Ports
- [Port Efficiency: A Multi-dimensional Concept](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/port-efficiency-multi-dimensional-concept/) - Port efficiency focuses on terminal operations efficiency (productivity). It relates to the physical quantities of items, the levels of effort expended, the scale or scope of activities, and the efficiency in transforming resources into some product (or service). Indicators traditionally used to measure
- [Variance of Port Authorities Role in Cruise Ports Governance](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/variance-port-authorities-cruise-ports/) - Source: Adapted from Pallis A.A., Arapi K.P. and Papachristou A.A. (2019). Models of Cruise Ports Governance. Maritime Policy and Management, 46(5), 630-651.
- [Port Governance Transparency: Disclosure and Involvement](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/port-governance-transparency-disclosure-involvement/) - Source: Brooks M.R., Knatz G., Pallis A.A. and Wilmsmeier G. (2020). Transparency in Port Governance: Seaport Practices. PortReport No 5. PortEconomics.eu
- [Port Governance Performance Indicators in Port Cluster Integration and Autonomous Management](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/port-governance-performance-indicators-port-cluster-integration-autonomous-management/)
- [Monthly Container Volumes for the Main US West Coast Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/ports-and-pandemic/monthly-container-volumes-for-the-main-us-west-coast-ports/) - Source: based on traffic data of respective port authorities
- [Clean Truck Program in Los Angeles/Long Beach](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/green-port-governance/clean-truck-program-in-los-angeles-long-beach/) - The Clean Truck Program is part of the San Pedro Bay Ports Clean Air Action Plan, a comprehensive joint strategy of the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach for accelerating the transition of the entire fleet to zero-emissions trucks by 2035. The strategy addresses technology, the cost and commercial availability of clean trucks, financing,
- [Air Cargo Traffic by Metropolitan Area, 2018](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/freight-traffic-worlds-largest-airports/) - Source: Airports Council International. Note: Several metropolitan areas contain more than one airport.
- [Policy Options to Reduce Entry Barriers in Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/entry-barriers-in-seaports/policy-options-reduce-entry-barriers-seaports/) - Source: Adapted from De Langen P.W. and Pallis Α.Α. (2007). Entry Barriers in Seaports, Maritime Policy and Management, 34(5), 427-440.
- [Strategies to Introduce Intra-Port Competition and Prevent Rent Extraction](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/intra-port-competition/strategies-introduce-intra-port-competition-rent-extraction/) - Source: Adapted from: De Langen P.W. and Pallis A.A. (2006). The benefits of intra-port competition. International Journal of Transport Economics, 33(1), 69-85. The figure shows available policy options to introduce intra-port competition and strategies to prevent excess rent-seeking by port service providers.
- [Entry Barriers in Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/entry-barriers-in-seaports/entry-barriers-seaports/) - Adapted from: De Langen P.W. and Pallis Α.Α. (2007). Entry Barriers in Seaports, Maritime Policy and Management, 34(5), 427-440.
- [Categories of Port Fees at Cruise Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/categories-fees-cruise-terminal/)
- [Container Terminal Cargo Storage Handling Charges](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/container-terminal-cargo-storage-handling-charges/)
- [Conditions Supporting Market Power of Port Service Providers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/intra-port-competition/conditions-excess-market-power-port-service-providers/) - Source: Adapted from: De Langen P.W. and Pallis A.A. (2006). The benefits of intra-port competition. International Journal of Transport Economics, 33(1), 69-85. The figure summarises the conditions under which port service providers enjoy excess market power and can extract economic rents. The introduction of intra-port competition is essential to maintain or improve the competitiveness of
- [Concession Fees and Financial Flows of Port Authorities and Terminal Operators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/concession-fees-and-financial-flows/) - Source: Adapted from Uyttendaele, P. (2012) “Public Private Partnerships in Ports: Pitfalls and Challenges”, ESPO Annual Conference, Sopot, 10-11 May 2012.
- [Most Common Causes of Grounding Claims, 2013-2017](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/causes-of-unintentional-vessel-grounding/) - Source: adapted from data of The Swedish Club. Note: include bulk carriers, container vessels and tankers. Ship grounding or ship stranding can be intentional or unintentional: Intentional grounding occurs in order to land crew or cargo, to 'beach' a vessel for scrapping, or to conduct maintenance or repairs. It demands very careful maneuvering and high
- [Recent Post Governance Reforms: Asia](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/recent-post-governance-reforms-asia/) - Adapted from: Brooks M.R., Cullinane K.P.B. and Pallis, A.A. (2017). Revisiting Port Governance and Port Reform: A Multi-country Examination. Research in Transportation Business and Management, 22, 1-10.
- [Instruments for Port Authorities to Reduce the Environmental Impacts of Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/green-port-governance/instruments-environmental-impact-terminal/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom, T. and Lam, J., 2018. The greening of terminal concessions in seaports. Sustainability, 10(9), 3318.
- [Recent Port Governance Reforms: Europe](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/recent-post-governance-reforms-europe/) - Adapted from: Brooks M.R., Cullinane K.P.B. and Pallis, A.A. (2017). Revisiting Port Governance and Port Reform: A Multi-country Examination. Research in Transportation Business and Management, 22, 1-10.
- [Port Governance: Matching Frameworks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/port-governance-matching-frameworks/) - Source: Adapted from: Baltazar R and Brooks M.R.(2006). Port governance, devolution and the matching framework: a configuration theory approach, Research in Transportation Economics 17, 379-403. The port governance model is defined by the configuration of three inputs: (a) the strategy (in other words, the objectives, the decisions about its product-market scope, and the plan for effecting these)
- [Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/carbon-capture-utilisation-and-storage/) - Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU) and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) are broadly seen as instruments that could help achieve climate change targets by emitting a lower net-amount CO2 into the atmosphere. The process of CCS consists of three steps which are capturing, transportation, and storage. In 2018, there were 43 large-scale CCS facilities, of
- [Public and Private Roles in Port Management](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/public-private-roles-port-management/) - Adapted from: World Bank (undated, 2005) World Bank Port Reform Toolkit.
- [Evolution of Representative Vessels in Cruise Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-shipping-representative-vessels/)
- [Depth and Surface Distribution of a Sample of Container Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/depth-surface-distribution-sample-container-terminals/) - Source: Web sites of port authorities and terminal operators. There are technical constraints in accommodating large containerships, mainly related to terminal depth and terminal surface. While a terminal could have sufficient depth to handle a large ship, it could be lacking in a sufficient terminal surface to store a large inflow and outflow of containers (and
- [Change in Average Ship Size and Deployed Capacity by Major Port (2019/2020 vs 2008/2009)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/maritime-ranges-propensity-cluster-formation/change-average-ship-size-deployed-capacity-major-port-2019-2020-vs-2008-2009/) - Source: Notteboom T.E. Pallis A.A. and Rodrigue J-P. (2021). Disruptions and Resilience in Container Shipping, Ports and Supply chains: The COVID-19 pandemic vs. the 2008-2009 Financial Crisis. Maritime Economics and Logistics, doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00180-5. In 2020 the maximum size of the container vessels deployed at each port continued to increase despite the pandemic as shipping lines continue to exploit economies
- [Construction of the Suez Canal, 1869](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/construction-suez-canal-1869/) - Source for image: unknown. With the rise of modern Europe through its industrial revolution and the growth of seaborne commerce, entrepreneurs began to think of building canals. One such initiative aimed at connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Ocean directly. This would same time either to sail around Africa or transshipping passengers and freight across
- [Interlinked Drivers of Cruise Ships Deployment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/interlinked-drivers-cruise-ships-deployment/) - Several interlinked factors contribute to the decision of a cruise line to deploy a cruise ship in a particular cruise region and develop itineraries including a number of ports. Beyond the presence of a port that is capable to host home-porting activities, and several cruise ports in a reasonable geographical distance that allows calling more
- [Safety, Security, and Occupational Health, Performance Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/occupational-health-safety-security-performance-indicators/)
- [Cruise Market Segments](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-market-segments/)
- [Socio-Economic Performance Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/socio-economic-performance-indicators/)
- [Port Governance: Transparency Performance Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/port-governance-transparency-performance-indicators/)
- [Key Decision Levels in the Development of a Regional Distribution Network](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/key-decision-levels-development-regional-distribution-network/)
- [The Reconfiguration of Logistics Networks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/reconfiguration-logistics-networks-de-coupling-order-delivery/)
- [Port and Terminal Selection by Container Shipping Lines](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/port-terminal-selection-container-shipping-lines/) - Source: Adapted from Notteboom, T.E., Parola, F., Satta, G., Pallis, A.A., 2017, The relationship between port choice and terminal involvement of alliance members in container shipping, Journal of Transport Geography, vol. 64, p. 58-173. Port selection is a complex process subject to several criteria. The direct impact of shippers and other cargo interests on terminal
- [Asset Management Domains in Container Shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/asset-management-domains-container-shipping/)
- [Dimensions of Port Governance Transparency](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/dimensions-port-governance-transparency/) - Source: Adapted from: Brooks, M.R., Knatz G., Pallis A.A. and Wilmsmeier G. (2020). Transparency in Port Governance: Seaport Practices. PortReport No 5. PortEconomics.eu. Four different dimensions need to be considered in order to realize whether the existing levels of port governance transparency facilitate improvements in the governance, and ultimately the performance, of a given port.
- [Criteria for evaluating port effectiveness: Levels of influence per actor](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-effectiveness/criteria-evaluating-port-effectiveness/) - Source: Adapted from: Brooks M.R. (2012). The AAPA Customer Service Initiative Report. Washington DC: AAPA.
- [Margins, Service Customization and Complexity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/increasing-margins-service-customization-complexity/)
- [Art Dedicated to Dock Workers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-labor/art-dedicated-dock-workers/) - In many port cities, statues or other artworks honoring the contribution of dockworkers to the development and competitiveness of the port can be found. Some examples include: ‘De Dokwerker’ by Mari Andriessen in Amsterdam, the Netherlands in commemoration of the February strike of 1941. ‘Buildrager’ monument of the harbor worker by Constantin Meunier, near City
- [Cruise Ship at the Port of Vancouver](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/cruise-ship-port-of-vancouver/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2012 The port of Vancouver (Port Metro Vancouver) is an important cruise shipping turn port for the seasonal Alaskan cruises (June to September) and handled about 805,000 passengers in 2015. The main cruise port is located at the Canada Place facility, which is at the core of the city and can
- [Number of Cruise Ports managed per Port Authority: The Med (2015)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/number-cruise-ports-managed-port-authority/) - Source: MedCruise Fact Finding Report (2015). Piraeus: MedCruise. An increasing number of Port Authorities manage today more than one port. An illustrative example is cruise ports in the Meditteranean Sea. A survey conducted by MedCruise in 2015 revealed that 13% of Port Authorities operating the smaller cruise ports in the region, i.e. those hosting less than
- [Expected Cruise Ports Services & Facilities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/expected-cruise-ports-services-facilities/)
- [Goods Explosion Model](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/break-bulk/goods-explosion-model/) - Source: adapted from Meeuse, G.C., (1977), Technologische aspecten van het geïntegreerd transport, Nederlands Vervoerswetenschappelijk Instituut: Rijswijk
- [Size of Cruise Terminals in North America](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/size-cruise-terminals-north-america/) - Source: Port Authorities; various industry reports.
- [Cruise Ships: Scale of Dimensions and Capacity](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/ports-and-cruise-shipping/cruise-ships-scale-dimensions-capacity/) - Source: Cheng, Z. Gong L. and Li C. (2020). Design and Practice of Cruise Ports. Singapore: Springer .
- [Coordination Mechanisms and Arrangements in Seaports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-cooperation-and-coordination/coordination-mechanisms-arrangements-seaports/) - Source: adapted from AT Operators.
- [Groups of Port Governance Tasks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-reform-and-governance/groups-port-governance-tasks/) - With ports being multifaceted organizations whose functioning depends on numerous functions, port governance involves decisions regarding many different tasks. Each task is related to one of the following six groups of port governance activities: Port policy formation; Public authority functions; Technical management of port areas; Market and price regulations (including competition); Management of concession agreements;
- [Container Terminal Cargo Handling Charges](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/container-terminal-cargo-handling-charges/)
- [The Strategic Port Planning Process](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-planning-and-development/the-strategic-port-planning-process/)
- [Container Terminal: Service Performance Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/container-terminal-service-performance-indicators/)
- [Container Terminal Performance: Utilization Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/container-terminal-performance-utilization-indicators/)
- [Container Terminal Productivity Indicators](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/container-terminal-productivity-indicators/)
- [Types of Container Movements at the Terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/types-container-movements-terminal/)
- [Measurement of Container Terminal Production](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-efficiency/measurement-container-terminal-production/)
- [Functional Interdependences of a Seaport](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/defining-seaports/interaction-port-other-nodes/) - Seaports interact with other nodes such as overseas and neighboring seaports, intermodal terminals, and inland logistics platforms. They rarely operate in isolation from other ports.
- [Equipment on a coal/iron ore terminal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/equipment-coal-iron-ore-terminal/)
- [Dredging Activities and Equipment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/dredging-activities-and-equipment/) - Most common dredgers Dredging is the process of underwater excavation of soils and rocks. Dredging is done periodically to remove underwater sediments called silt and debris from shipping harbors, rivers, coastlines, or lakes. There are four phases in the dredging process: excavation, vertical transport, horizontal transport, and placement or use of the dredged material. The main
- [Handling Gear Used at Breakbulk Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/handling-gear-breakbulk/)
- [Lock Operations Principles](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-terminal-construction/lock-operations-explained/)
- [Examples of Grain Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/bulk-breakbulk-terminal-design-equipment/grain-terminals-examples/)
- [Distribution of Port Dues per Size of Cruise Vessel](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-pricing/port-dues-size-cruise-vessel/)
- [Options Related to the Splitting and Phasing of a Terminal Site](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/options-splitting-phasing-terminal-site/) - Source: Theys, Notteboom, Pallis & De Langen (2009) "The economics behind the awarding of terminals". in seaports: towards a research agenda.
- [Phases in Port Terminal Awarding Procedure](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/phases-port-terminals-awarding-procedure/) - Source: Adapted from Theys C., Notteboom T.E., Pallis A.A., & de Langen P.W. (2010). The economics behind the awarding of terminals in seaports: A research agenda. Research in Transport Economics, 27, 10-18.
- [Main Types of Public-Private Partnerships](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/terminal-concessions-and-land-leases/characteristics-types-public-private-partnerships/) - Source: adapted from Hammami, M., Ruhashyankiko, J.F., & Yehoue, E. (2006). Determinants of public-private partnerships in infrastructure. IMF Working Paper, IMF Institute.
- [Quay and Yard Equipment Combinations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/combinations-of-quay-and-yard-equipment/)
- [The Insertion of a Satellite Terminal in Port Operations](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/insertion-satellite-terminal-port-operations/) - For many container ports, increasing throughput and terminal productivity have become a challenge, particularly in light of larger containerships placing pressures on port operations around a specific time slot. Thus, the capacity problem may not be in absolute terms, but in terms of throughput. The conventional strategy to address capacity issues mainly involved expanding terminal
- [On-Dock Rail, Maher Terminal, Newark](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/on-dock-rail-maher-terminal-newark/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2010.
- [Rubber-Tired Gantry Crane](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/rubber-tired-gantry-crane/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2008.
- [Double Stacked Containers Carried on the Panama Canal Railway](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/double-stacked-containers-panama-canal-railway/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013. The Panama Canal Railway Company is operated as a subsidiary of the American railway KCS, which is also involved in Mexico. The 75 km corridor links the Atlantic and Pacific sides of the canal in about an hour and a half. It also offers daily passenger services, but its dominant function is
- [Bosporus at Istanbul](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/bosporus-istanbul/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013. The dividing line between Europe and Asia, the link-up between the Mediterranean (Marmara Sea) and the Back Sea, the Bosporus is an ancient valley along a fractured tectonic line. The strait is entirely within Turkey and divides Istanbul in two. It is considered an international shipping lane of free access,
- [The Corinthian Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/corinthian-canal/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2015. The Corinthian canal is 6.4 km in length and connects the Ionian and the Aegean seas through the Isthmus of Corinth. The idea of using the short isthmus as a canal can go as far back as the 7th Century BC when a portage road was established. Upon its completion
- [The Dardanelles and Bosporus Passages](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/dardanelles-bosporus-passages/) - The dividing line between Europe and Asia, the link-up between the Mediterranean and the Back Sea, the Bosporus is an ancient valley along a fractured tectonic line. From the Mediterranean Ocean, it runs through the Dardanelles passage to reach the Sea of Marmara, a small interior sea. Then, the narrow Bosporus passage (1 km at
- [Development of the Suez Canal, 1869-2015](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/development-suez-canal/) - Source: Suez Canal Authority. In more than 140 years of operation, the Suez Canal has been expended to increase its operational capacity, which allows for ships of up to 240,000 dwt.
- [Challenges to the Expansion of the Panama Canal](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/challenges-expansion-panama-canal/) - Source: Adapted from Rodrigue, J-P (2010) Factors Impacting North American Freight Distribution in View of the Panama Canal Expansion, The Van Horne Institute, University of Calgary. In the early 2010s, the expansion of the Panama Canal brought forward expectations about traffic growth and trade opportunities within Latin America as well as the US East Coast. Yet,
- [Terms Used to Define Inland Nodes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/terms-define-inland-nodes/) - There is a wide variety of terms that have been used to refer to inland freight facilities both in the academic and commercial literature. For instance, nodes in the hinterland networks of ports have been referred to as dry ports, inland terminals, inland ports, freight villages, inland hubs, inland logistics centers, inland freight villages, etc.
- [Automated Guided Vehicles and Automated Stacking Cranes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/automated-guided-vehicles-automated-stacking-cranes-long-beach-container-terminal/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2019. Location: Long Beach Container Terminal (LBCT). An important component of container terminal automation concerns horizontal movements, which includes flows between the docks and the stacking yards. Automated Guided Vehicles (AGV) are able to carry containers between dockside and the stacking yards using various sensors and positioning systems to properly navigate.
- [Remote Verification of Container Identification at a Port Terminal Gate](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/terminal-automation/remote-verification-container-identification-port-terminal-gate/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2018. The verification of the container identification code is done at the entry and/or exit of a terminal gate. The process uses the Container Identification System to ensure that the right container gets picked up or delivered. In the above photo, a manager operates a verification station at the gate of a
- [Share of Refrigerated Transport Capacity in Maritime Shipping, 1980-2017](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/share-refrigerated-transport-capacity-maritime-shipping/) - Source: Adapted from Drewry Shipping Consultants. The maritime transport of refrigerated goods has experienced a paradigm shift in recent decades. While in 1980 33% of the refrigerated transport capacity in maritime shipping was containerized, this share rapidly climbed to 47% in 1990, 68% in 2000 and 72% in 2013. This implies that the traditional refrigerated
- [Reefer Slots Available at North American Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/reefer-slots-available-north-american-ports/) - Source: Web sites of port authorities and terminal operators. In North America two main trends impact the availability of reefer slots by port: For the major container ports such as Los Angeles / Long Beach, Seattle, Vancouver, Houston, Savannah and New York, the number of reefer slots is proportional to the amount of container traffic.
- [Examples of waterfront redevelopment in European port cities](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-social-and-environmental-value/waterfront-redevelopment-european-port-cities/) - Some European examples of dockland and riverfront redevelopment 1 - Genoa (Porto Antico), 2 - Hamburg (HafenCity), 3 - London (Docklands), 4 - Lisbon (Parque das Nações), 5 – Valencia, 6 - Marseilles (Euroméditerranée), 7 - Rotterdam (Kop van Zuid), 8 - Antwerp (‘t Eilandje)
- [Examples of wind farms and gas terminals in seaport areas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-social-and-environmental-value/wind-farms-gas-terminals-seaport-areas/) - 1 to 4 - Examples of wind farms in seaport areas: 1 – Karuhsaari, Finland, 2 – slufterdam in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, 3 – Zeebrugge, Belgium, 4 – Blyth Harbour, UK 5 – Gas terminals in the port of Zeebrugge, Belgium (source Fluxys): LNG terminal in outer harbour for LNG ships, terminals for pipelines Zeepipe
- [Cruise Ships at the Port of Barcelona](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/cruise-ships-port-of-barcelona/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2011. The port of Barcelona on the Mediterranean coast of Spain is the most important cruise shipping hub of the Mediterranean and the second most important in the world after Miami. In 2010, it handled around 2.35 million passengers with the months between April and October being the busiest (summer peak
- [Large Ships in Small Places, Chios, Greece](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/large-ships-small-places-chios-greece/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2015. Cruise ships are often calling relatively small ports since they represent attractive venues in the cruise experience; a sense of exclusiveness. However, depending on the local amenities, such as docks, they can have disruptive impacts on local communities. The above cruise ship, the Celestyal Crystal, is docked at the port of
- [Selection Factors for a Transshipment Hub](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/selection-factors-transshipment-hub/) - Sequential port call services can be partially replaced through the insertion of an intermediate hub (also known as a transshipment hub). These hubs usually have several advantages inciting maritime shipping companies to configure their service network, namely with interlining and hub-and-spoke configurations. The selection of a port to act as a transshipment hub is based
- [Levels of Transshipment Incidence](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/levels-transshipment-incidence/) - Transshipment incidence refers to the share container transshipment traffic (ship to ship) takes in regard to the total volume handled by a port. This share can be classified into four levels: Gateway or feeder port (low incidence). Transshipment incidence is less than 10%, which implies that the majority of the port activities are related to
- [Slow steaming in container shipping](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/slow-steaming-container-shipping/) - Since 2007, shipping lines started to implement slow steaming by reducing their vessels' commercial speed from 22-23 knots to 18 knots or even slower (the so-called super slow steaming). Slow steaming was initially used to realize fuel cost savings in a period when the bunker price was rising fast. For example, the fuel cost per
- [Ports of Los Angeles / Long Beach, Inland Flows](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/competition-between-ports-of-los-angeles-long-beach/ports-los-angeles-long-beach-inland-flows/) - Source: adapted from M. Rahimi, A. Asef-Vaziri and R. Harrison (2008) “An Inland Port Location-Allocation Model for a Regional Intermodal Goods Movement System”, Maritime Economics & Logistics, Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 362-379. The challenges of connecting a port to its hinterland are particularly acute for large gateways such as the Los Angeles / Long
- [Factors behind the Congestion of San Pedro Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/competition-between-ports-of-los-angeles-long-beach/factors-congestion-san-pedro-ports/) - The congestion was exacerbated by the difficult renegotiation of the ILWU west coast longshore contract that expired on July 1, 2014, and the shift in chassis ownership from the ocean carriers to leasing companies. The use of larger containerships by the ocean carrier alliances meant large volumes of containers were being discharged from one vessel. Handling such
- [Truck Turn Times, San Pedro Ports, 2015](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/competition-between-ports-of-los-angeles-long-beach/truck-turn-times-san-pedro-ports/) - Source: Harbor Trucking Association. The left graph of the above figure shows the average and median truck turn time in minutes across all the 13 container terminals in the ports for the months March through October 2015. The right graph provides the percentage of moves for less than one hour, between one and two hours and
- [Transit Times from Shanghai and North American Routing Options (in Days)](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/port-of-savannah-logistics-cluster/transit-times-shanghai-north-american-routing-options/) - Source: adapted from G. Arnold (2009) “Global Supply Chain Trends and the Impact on North American Distribution Markets”, Talking Freight Seminar, US Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration. Containerized transportation in North America is facing changes that are impacting the volume, the usage of gateways and intermodal options to service the hinterland. Initially, the
- [Average Tenure of Port Director, American Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-management-governance-leadership/average-tenure-director-american-ports/)
- [Sample Port Power Wheel for a Port Director leading a Locally-Controlled Public Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-management-governance-leadership/port-power-wheel-port-director-locally-controlled-public-port/) - Every power wheel is different and needs to be constructed independently. It takes time for the preparer of the power wheel to understand all the relationships and be able to map them. It is not an inconsequential effort to meet with and build relationships with every organization on one’s power wheel. Building a power wheel
- [Container Usage during its Life-Span](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/container-usage-life-span/) - Source: adapted from Crinks, P. (2000) Container Usage Asset Management in the Global Container Logistics Chain, International Asset Systems. Containers are built to be durable since they can be exposed to all possible conditions, from tropical to subarctic. They are also subject to potential damage when loaded, unloaded, transshipped, or carried. Additionally, what a container
- [Characteristics of Container Leasing Arrangements](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/characteristics-container-leasing-arrangements/) - Source: adapted from S. Theofanis and M. Boile (2009) "Empty Marine Container Logistics: Facts, Issues and Management Strategies", Geojournal, Vol. 74, pp. 51-65. Leasing a container is more costly than ownership from an operational standpoint, about 60% to 70%. Still, there is a large leasing market, with about 40% of the global fleet of containers
- [Geographical Levels of Empty Container Repositioning](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/geographical-levels-empty-container-repositioning/) - Source: adapted from Boile, M., S. Theofanis, A. Baveja and N. Mittal (2008) “Regional repositioning of empty containers: A case for inland depots”, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board. The repositioning of empty containers takes place at three geographical levels: Global repositioning involves the mitigation of trans-oceanic trade imbalances from a surplus (import-oriented)
- [Inland Containerized Flows and Inland Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/inland-containerized-flows-inland-ports/) - Inland flows of containerized freight present several challenges, namely the repositioning of empty containers. The above figure provides a synthetic representation of the flows between a port and a hinterland composed of importers (consignees) and exporters (consigners). In a standard system, three possible systems of circulation are possible: One-way import loop (A). A container is
- [Asymmetries between Import and Export-Based Containerized Logistics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/asymmetries-import-export-based-containerized-logistics/) - The long-distance transportation of containers relying on the usage of inland ports is facing an asymmetry between import-based and export-based logistics. This is particularly the case in Europe and North America where there is a significant difference between the nature of imports and exports, implying that inbound and outbound logistics are based on different commercial and operational
- [The Economic Significance of Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-economic-value/economic-significance-ports/)
- [Transport and Cargo Handling Functions of a Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/introduction/seaports-economic-value/transport-cargo-handling-functions-port/)
- [Layers to Maritime Logistics Services](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/layers-maritime-logistics-services/)
- [Shipping Lanes, Strategic Passages and Oil Production in the Middle East](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/shipping-lanes-strategic-passages-oil-production-middle-east/) - Concerning energy trades such as petroleum and natural gas, the Middle East is at a crossroads. First, it is an intermediary location as trade routes transit through the strategic passages of the region, particularly Bab el-Mandab and the Suez Canal. Second, it is one of the world's largest exporter of energy, the majority of which
- [A Typology of Warehousing](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/typology-warehousing/)
- [Distribution Network Configurations for Containerized Import Cargo](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/distribution-network-configurations-containerized-import-cargo/)
- [Distribution Network Configurations for Containerized Import Cargo in North America](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/distribution-network-configurations-containerized-import-cargo-north-america/)
- [The North American Landbridge](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/north-american-landbridge/)
- [Deviation from the Main Shipping Route of Mediterranean Container Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/deviation-main-shipping-route-mediterranean-container-ports/) - Source: adapted from Rodrigue, J-P and T. Notteboom (2010) “Foreland-Based Regionalization: Integrating Intermediate Hubs with Port Hinterlands”, Research in Transportation Economics, Vol. 27, pp. 19-29. The Mediterranean Sea provides a good example where intermediate hubs have contributed to the repositioning of the region within global trade flows. In the West Med, extensive hub-feeder container systems
- [Mergers and Acquisitions in the Container Shipping Industry since 2014](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/mergers-acquisitions-container-shipping-industry/) - Mid 2014: Hamburg Süd took over CCNI (Compañía Chilena de Navegación Interoceánica) for 160 million USD; December 2014: merger between Hapag-Lloyd and CSAV (Companía Sud Americana de Vapores) completed; Late 2015: NOL/APL and CMA CGM agreed on the sale of APL container division to CMA CGM; Early 2016: China Shipping and Cosco merged their activities
- [Types of Inter-Range Maritime Routes](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/types-inter-range-maritime-routes/) - Inter-range maritime services involve a set of sequential port calls along a maritime range, commonly including a transoceanic service to ports in another range and structured as a continuous loop. They are almost exclusively used for container shipping with the purpose of servicing a market by balancing the number of port calls and the frequency of
- [Recent Changes in Port Authority Functions](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-authorities/recent-changes-port-authority-functions/)
- [Main Driving Forces behind the Setting of Inland Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/main-driving-forces-setting-inland-terminals/)
- [Added Value Activities Performed at an Inland Port](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/dry-ports/added-value-activities-performed-inland-port/)
- [Ports and Urban Land Use](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-city-relationships/ports-urban-land-use/) - Source: adapted from Hoyle B.S. (1989) "The port-city interface: trends, problems and examples". Geoforum, Vol. 20, pp. 429-35.
- [Objectives of Port Authorities Marketing Strategies](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part9/port-marketing/objectives-port-authorities-marketing-strategies/) - Adapted from: Parola, F., Pallis, A.A., Risitano, M. & Ferretti, M. (2018). Marketing strategies of port authorities: A multi-dimensional theorisation, Transportation Research Policy and Practice Part A, 111, 199-212.
- [Maritime Ranges and the Propensity for Cluster Formation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/maritime-ranges-propensity-cluster-formation/)
- [Risks Associated with Terminal Investments](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/risks-associated-terminal-investments/)
- [Sources of Funding and Finance for Port Terminals](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/financialisation-and-terminal-funding/sources-funding-finance-port-terminals/)
- [The societal status of the dock worker](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part4/port-labor/societal-status-dock-worker/) - The societal status of the profession and professional pride of the dock worker differ a lot from port to port which serves as an example of the role of cultural differences in relation to the social position of a specific job. In some ports, job loyalty, and pride are high. In other ports, dock work
- [Range of Actions for Green Supply Chain Management in Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/actions-green-supply-chain-management-ports/) - Source: Adapted from Notteboom, T., Van der Lugt, L., Van Saase, N., Sel, S., Neyens, K. (2020) “The role of seaports in Green Supply Chain Management: initiatives, attitudes and perspectives in Rotterdam, Antwerp, North Sea Port and Zeebrugge”, Sustainability, vol. 12, 1688 https://doi.org/10.3390/su12041688
- [Madrid Maersk](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/madrid-maersk/) - Photo: Dr. Theo Notteboom.
- [Site of the 2020 Beirut Port Explosion](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part10/port-resilience/site-2020-beirut-port-explosion/) - Source: Background map from Google Earth. Image, February 2020. The storage of hazardous materials in port areas represents a recurrent risk. On August 4, 2020, about 2,750 tons of ammonium nitrate (used for making fertilizers or explosives) stored in a dockside warehouse in the port of Beirut, Lebanon, exploded, resulting in one of the largest
- [The Port as a Nexus in Global Supply Chains](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/port-nexus-global-supply-chains/)
- [Spreader technology](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/spreader-technology-2/)
- [Sustainability Dimensions in the Maritime Transport Industry](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/ports-and-maritime-supply-chains/sustainability-dimensions-maritime-transport-industry/) - Maritime shipping and port operations have several specific and common environmental issues. Five fields of action can be distinguished to pursue green supply chain management objectives in a port and maritime shipping environment: Green shipping. Green port development and operations. Green inland logistics. Circular economy. Knowledge exchange and development.
- [Location Criteria for Distribution Centers](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/ports-and-distribution-networks/location-criteria-distribution-centers/)
- [Main Technologies and Focus on Digital Transformation in Logistics and Ports](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/digital-transformation/technologies-focus-digital-transformation-logistics-ports/)
- [Functional Model of an Organizational Green Supply Chain](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/green-supply-chain-management-ports/functional-model-organizational-green-supply-chain/) - Source: Adapted from Sarkis (2002).
- [Cargo Bundling in Port Areas](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part2/port-hinterlands-regionalization/cargo-bundling-port-areas/) - Source: adapted from Notteboom , T. (2008) Bundling of freight flows and hinterland network development, in: Konings, R., Priemus, H., Nijkamp, P. (eds), The Future of Intermodal Freight Transport, Operations, Technology, Design and Implementation, Edward Elgar: Cheltenham, p. 66-88
- [Costs of Medium and Big size Cruise Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/costs-of-medium-and-big-size-cruise-vessels/) - Source: Chaos, S.R., Pallis, A.A., Marchán, S.S., Roca, D.P. and Conejo, A.S.A., 2020, Economies of scale in cruise shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics. doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00158-3.
- [Cruise Ship Costs per Size of Vessel](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/cruise-ship-costs-per-passenger/) - Source: Chaos, S.R., Pallis, A.A., Marchán, S.S., Roca, D.P. and Conejo, A.S.A., 2020, Economies of scale in cruise shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics. doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00158-3.
- [Costs of Small Size Cruise Vessels](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part7_1/cruises-ports/costs-of-small-size-cruise-vessels/) - Source: Chaos, S.R., Pallis, A.A., Marchán, S.S., Roca, D.P. and Conejo, A.S.A., 2020, Economies of scale in cruise shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics. doi.org/10.1057/s41278-020-00158-3.
- [Rotterdam Maasvlakte Port Expansion Project](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/rotterdam-maasvlatke-port-expansion-project/)
- [Panama Canal: Miraflores Locks](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part1/interoceanic-passages/panama-canal-miraflores-locks/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2013. The Miraflores Locks are the first locks on the Pacific side of the canal. In the above photo, southbound vessels occupy both the west and east lanes at Miraflores Locks, where they are being lowered 16.5 meters from the level of Miraflores Lake to the sea level of the Pacific
- [Maritime Deviation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/ports-and-container-shipping/maritime-deviation/) - Maritime shipping lines try to offer the most direct services possible, but the routing this entails must be reconciled with the location of ports. The maritime deviation is the additional distance away from the main shipping routes it takes to service a specific port. The higher the deviation, the more reluctant maritime shipping companies will
- [Conventional Intermodal Port Terminal Equipment](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/container-terminal-design-equipment/conventional-intermodal-port-terminal-equipment/)
- [Global Coal Market](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part5/ports-and-energy/global-coal-market/) - Coal comes in three major grades, anthracite (85% carbon), bituminous (50 to 75% carbon), and lignite (40% carbon). Anthracite is the most exploited and most rapidly depleted. Thermal coal represents about 90% of use, mainly in power stations.
- [Cargo Rotation](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/containers-and-ports/cargo-rotation/) - Source: Notteboom, T. and J-P Rodrigue (2005) “Port Regionalization: Towards a New Phase in Port Development”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 297-313. The movement of empty trucks or containers represents one of the most complex transport problems in freight distribution. Acute imbalances in international trade have expanded the scale of this problem
- [Port Centric Logistics](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part8/port-clusters/port-centric-logistics/) - For accessibility reasons, port-centric activities tend to cluster in areas close to or adjacent to port terminals. A better organization of first and second-tier activities is commonly leading to the setting of port-centric logistics zones. These zones have several advantages, including a better utilization level of transportation and container assets.
- [Crossroads Business Park](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part12/port-of-savannah-logistics-cluster/crossroads-business-park/) - Source: Image courtesy of SEDA. The users of the Crossroads Business Park (CBP) are major retailers having a network of stores spanning North America: Home Depot. The home hardware retailer Home Depot, with 2,200 stores, was the first major anchor tenant in 1996 by locating the first major deconsolidation center in the Southeast. Deconsolidation requires
- [Stacked Reefer Storage, Maher Terminal, Newark](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/stacked-reefer-storage-maher-terminal-newark/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2010. Reefers can be stacked like regular containers at a dedicated area where electric plugs are available. The above photo displays the reefer stacking area at the Maher Terminal at the Port of New York and New Jersey. Power outlets (poles) are provided for each row and up to 4 stacked
- [Reefer Power Outlet](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part6/port-cold-chains/reefer-power-outlet/) - Photo: Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, 2019. Gloucester Marine Terminal, Holt Logistics. When a reefer is stored at a terminal, it needs to be plugged to a specialized electrical power outlet, usually of 32 amperes and 380/440 volts. To provide power, terminals install within their yards what is known as reefer plugs, which are combined into outlets
- [Shanghai Yangshan Port Expansion Project](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/shanghai-yangshan-port-expansion-project/)
- [Antwerp Deurganckdock Port Expansion Project](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part3/changing-geography-of-seaports/antwerp-deurganckdock-port-expansion-project/)
- [Chapter 11.2 - Ports and Economic Development](https://porteconomicsmanagement.org/pemp/contents/part11/port-and-economic-development/) - Ports are catalysts for economic development as they enable trade and support supply chains. Port investments have economic benefits that can be direct, indirect, and induced.